Egypt
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This article is about the country of Egypt. For a topical guide of this subject, see Outline of Egypt. For other uses, see Egypt (disambiguation).
Arab Republic of Egypt
جمهورية مصر العربية
Gumhūriyyat Miṣr al-ʿArabiyyah
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Bilady, Bilady, Bilady
Capital
(and largest city) Cairo
30°2′N 31°13′E / 30.033°N 31.217°E / 30.033; 31.217
Official languages Arabic1
Ethnic groups 99% Egyptians, 0.9% Nubians, 0.1% Greeks
Demonym Egyptian
Government Semi-presidential republic
- President Hosni Mubarak
- Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif
Establishment
- First Dynasty c.3150 BC
- Independence from United Kingdom 28 February 1922
- Republic declared 18 June 1953
- National Day 23 July (to celebrate 23 July 1952)
Area
- Total 1,002,450 km2 (30th)
387,048 sq mi
- Water (%) 0.632
Population
- March 2009 estimate 76 million[1] (16th)
- Density 76/km2 (120th)
196/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
- Total $442.640 billion[2]
- Per capita $5,898[2]
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
- Total $162.164 billion[2]
- Per capita $2,161[2]
Gini (1999–00) 34.5 (medium)
HDI (2008) ▼ 0.716 (116th)
Currency Egyptian pound (EGP)
Time zone EET (UTC+2)
- Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .eg
Calling code +20
1 Arabic (de jure), Egyptian Arabic (de facto)
Egypt (pronounced /ˈiːdʒɪpt/ ( listen); Arabic: مصر Miṣr, pronounced [misˤɾ] ( listen); Egyptian Arabic: Maṣr [ˈmɑsˤɾ]; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, kīmi; Egyptian: Kemet), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Western Asia. Covering an area of about 1,010,000 square kilometers (390,000 sq mi), Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.
Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its estimated 76 million[1] live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable agricultural land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with the majority spread across the densely-populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
Egypt is famous for its ancient civilization and some of the world's most famous monuments, including the Giza pyramid complex and its Great Sphinx. The southern city of Luxor contains numerous ancient artifacts, such as the Karnak Temple and the Valley of the Kings. Egypt is widely regarded as an important political and cultural nation of the Middle East.
Egypt possesses one of the most developed economies in the Middle East, with sectors such as tourism, agriculture, industry and service at almost equal rates in national production.[citation needed] Consequently, the Egyptian economy is rapidly developing, due in part to legislation aimed at luring investments, coupled with both internal and political stability, along with recent trade and market liberalization.
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Geography
2.1 Climate
3 History
3.1 Ancient Egypt
3.2 Modern History
3.3 The Revolution
4 Identity
5 Politics
5.1 National
5.2 Human rights
5.3 Foreign relations
6 Governorates and regions
7 Economy
8 Demographics
9 Media
10 Religion
11 Culture
11.1 Renaissance
11.2 Art and architecture
11.3 Literature
11.4 Music
11.5 Festivals
11.6 Sports
11.6.1 Best results
12 Military
13 See also
13.1 Lists
14 Notes and references
14.1 General references
15 External links
Etymology
km.t (Egypt)
in hieroglyphs
One of the ancient Egyptian names of the country, Kemet (km.t), is derived from the fertile black soils deposited by the Nile floods, distinct from the deshret, or (dšṛt), of the desert.[3] The name is realized as kīmi and kīmə in the Coptic stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as Χημία (Khēmía).[4] Another name was t3-mry "land of the riverbank".[5] The names of Upper and Lower Egypt were Ta-Sheme'aw (t3-šmˁw) "sedgeland" and Ta-Mehew (t3 mḥw) "northland", respectively.
Miṣr, the Arabic and modern official name of Egypt (Egyptian Arabic: Maṣr), is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם (Mitzráyim), literally meaning "the two straits" (a reference to the dynastic separation of upper and lower Egypt).[6] The word originally connoted "metropolis" or "civilization" and also means "country", or "frontier-land".
The English name "Egypt" came via the Latin word Aegyptus derived from the ancient Greek word Aígyptos (Αίγυπτος). The adjective aigýpti, aigýptios was borrowed into Coptic as gyptios, kyptios, and from there into Arabic as qubṭī, back formed into qubṭ, whence English Copt. The term is derived from Late Egyptian Hikuptah "Memphis", a corruption of the earlier Egyptian name Hat-ka-Ptah (ḥwt-k3-ptḥ), meaning "home of the ka (soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god Ptah at Memphis.[7] Strabo provided a folk etymology according to which Aígyptos (Αίγυπτος ) had evolved as a compound from Aigaiou huptiōs (Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως), meaning "below the Aegean".
Geography
Main article: Geography of Egypt
White Desert, FarafraAt 1,001,450 square kilometers (386,660 sq mi),[8] Egypt is the world's 38th-largest country. In terms of land area, it is approximately the same size as all of Central America,[9] twice the size of Spain,[10] four times the size of the United Kingdom,[11] and the combined size of the US states of Texas and California.[12]
Nevertheless, due to the aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that approximately 99% of the population uses only about 5.5% of the total land area.[13]
The coastline of Alexandria, Egypt's second largest cityEgypt is bordered by Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a transcontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, which in turn is traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea.
The Nile River near AswanApart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is a desert. The winds blowing can create sand dunes more than 100 feet (30 m) high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara Desert and of the Libyan Desert. These deserts were referred to as the "red land" in ancient Egypt, and they protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats.
Towns and cities include Alexandria, one of the greatest ancient cities, Aswan, Asyut, Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital, El-Mahalla El-Kubra, Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu, Hurghada, Luxor, Kom Ombo, Port Safaga, Port Said, Sharm el Sheikh, Suez, where the Suez Canal is located, Zagazig, and Al-Minya. Oases include Bahariya, el Dakhla, Farafra, el Kharga and Siwa. Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa. See Egyptian Protectorates for more information.
Satellite image of Egypt, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library
Climate
Egypt does not receive much rainfall except in the winter months.[14] South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410 mm (16 in),[15] with most of the rainfall between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as Damietta, Baltim, Sidi Barrany, etc. and rarely in Alexandria, frost is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt.
Temperatures average between 80 °F (27 °C) and 90 °F (32 °C) in summer, and up to 109 °F (43 °C) on the Red Sea coast. Temperatures average between 55 °F (13 °C) and 70 °F (21 °C) in winter. A steady wind from the northwest helps hold down the temperature near the Mediterranean coast. The Khamaseen is a wind that blows from the south in Egypt in spring, bringing sand and dust, and sometimes raises the temperature in the desert to more than 100 °F (38 °C).
Every year, a predictable flooding of the Nile replenishes Egypt's soil. This gives the country consistent harvest throughout the year. Many know this event as The Gift of the Nile.
The rise in sea levels due to global warming threatens Egypt's densely populated coastal strip and could have grave consequences for the country's economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians into environmental refugees by the end of the century, according to climate experts.[16]
History
Main articles: History of Egypt, Ancient Egypt, and Egyptians
Ancient Egypt
Giza PyramidsSee also Population history of Egypt
There is evidence of rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in the desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishers replaced a grain-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society.[17]
By about 6000 BC the Neolithic culture rooted in the Nile Valley.[18] During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Badarian culture and the successor Naqada series are generally regarded as precursors to Dynastic Egyptian civilization. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining somewhat culturally separate, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC.[19]
tAwy ('Two Lands')
in hieroglyphs
A unified kingdom was founded circa 3150 BC by King Menes, giving rise to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptians subsequently referred to their unified country as tawy, meaning "two lands", and later kemet (Coptic: kīmi), the "black land", a reference to the fertile black soil deposited by the Nile river. Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, c.2700−2200 BC., famous for its many pyramids, most notably the Third Dynasty pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza Pyramids.
The Great Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza, built during the Old Kingdom, are modern national icons that are at the heart of Egypt's thriving tourism industry.The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years. Stronger Nile floods and stabilization of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom c. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic Hyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.
The Hanging Church of Cairo, first built in the third or fourth century AD, is one of the most famous Coptic Churches in Egypt.The New Kingdom (c.1550−1070 BC) began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Jebel Barkal in Nubia, and included parts of the Levant in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well-known Pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The first historically attested expression of monotheism came during this period in the form of Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded by Libyans, Nubians and Assyrians, but native Egyptians drove them out and regained control of their country.
The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Persians in 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle. Later, Egypt fell to the Greco–Macedonians and Romans, beginning over two thousand years of foreign rule. The last ruler from the Ptolemaic line was Cleopatra VII, who committed suicide with her lover Marc Antony, after Caesar Augustus had captured them.
Before Egypt became part of the Byzantine realm, Christianity had been brought by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the AD first century. Diocletian's reign marked the transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established.[20]
The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Persian invasion early in the seventh century, until in AD 639, Egypt was Adopted to Islamic Empire by the Muslim Arabs. when they Defeated The Byzantine Armies in Egypt by Help of Some Revolutionary Egyptians, the form of Islam the Arabs brought to Egypt was Sunni. Early in this period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices that had survived through Coptic Christianity that was Expanded in Egypt by the Byzantines, giving rise to various Sufi orders that have flourished to this day.[21] Muslim rulers nominated by the Islamic Caliphate remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, including The late 3 Centuries of them Egypt was Maintained Their Own Empire, Away of The Abbasi Caliphate for which Cairo was the seat of the Caliphate under the Fatimids. With the end of the Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, took control about AD 1250. They continued to govern the country until the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517, after which it became a province of the Ottoman Empire. The mid-14th-Century Black Death killed about 40% of the country's population.[22]
Modern History
Coat of arms of the House of Mohamed AliThe brief French invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte began in 1798. The expulsion of the French in 1801 by Ottoman, Mamluk, and British forces was followed by four years of anarchy in which Ottomans, Mamluks, and Albanians who were nominally in the service of the Ottomans, wrestled for power. Out of this chaos, the commander of the Albanian regiment, Muhammad Ali (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) emerged as a dominant figure and in 1805 was acknowledged by the Sultan in Istanbul as his (viceroy) in Egypt; the title implied subordination to the Sultan but this was in fact a polite fiction: Ottoman power in Egypt was finished and Muhammad Ali, an ambitious and able leader, established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt (at first really and later as British puppets) until the revolution of 1952. His primary focus was military: he annexed Northern Sudan (1820-1824), Syria (1833), and parts of Arabia and Anatolia; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple Byzantium itself, checked him: he had to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans, but he kept the Sudan and his title to Egypt was made hereditary. A more lasting consequence of his military ambition is that it made him the moderniser of Egypt. Anxious to learn the military (and therefore industrial) techniques of the great powers he sent students to the West and invited training missions to Egypt. He built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil service. For better or worse, the introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton, the Egyptian variety of which became famous, transformed Egyptian agriculture into a cash-crop monoculture before the end of the century. The social effects of this were enormous: it led to the concentration of agriculture in the hands of large landowners, and, with the additional trigger of high cotton prices caused by the United States' civil war production drop, to a large influx of foreigners who began in earnest the exploitation of Egypt for international commodity production.[23]
Female nationalists demonstrating in Cairo, 1919.Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son Ibrahim (in September 1848), then by a grandson Abbas I (in November 1848), then by Said (in 1854), and Isma'il (in 1863). Abbas I was cautious. Said and Ismail were ambitious developers; unfortunately they spent beyond their means. The Suez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. The expense of this and other projects had two effects: it led to enormous debt to European banks, and caused popular discontent because of the onerous taxation it necessitated. In 1875 Ismail was forced to sell Egypt's share in the canal to the British government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French controllers who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the government."[24] Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with Ahmad Urabi a prominent figure. In 1882 he became head of a nationalist-dominated ministry committed to democratic reforms including parliamentary control of the budget. Fearing a diminishment of their control, Britain and France intervened militarily, bombarding Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army at the battle of Tel el-Kebir.[25] They reinstalled Ismail's son Tewfik as figurehead of a de facto British protectorate.[26] In 1914 the Protectorate was made official, and the title of the head of state, which had changed from pasha to khedive in 1867, was changed to sultan, to repudiate the vestigial suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan, who was backing the Central powers in World War I. Abbas II was deposed as khedive and replaced by his uncle, Husayn Kamil, as sultan.[27]
In 1906, the Dinshaway Incident prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement. After the First World War, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement, gaining a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution. Constant revolting by the Egyptian people throughout the country led Great Britain to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on 22 February 1922.[28] The Kingdom of Egypt lasted from 1922 to its dissolution in 1953.
The Revolution
Main article: Egyptian Revolution of 1952
The new Egyptian government drafted and implemented a new constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary representative system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly-elected as Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924. In 1936 the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded. Continued instability in the government due to remaining British control and increasing political involvement by the king led to the ousting of the monarchy and the dissolution of the parliament in a military coup d'état known as the 1952 Revolution. The officers, known as the Free Officers Movement, forced King Farouk to abdicate in support of his son Fuad.
On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser – the real architect of the 1952 movement – and was later put under house arrest. Nasser assumed power as President and declared the full independence of Egypt from the United Kingdom on 18 June 1956. His nationalization of the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956 prompted the 1956 Suez Crisis.
View of Cairo, the largest city in Africa and the Middle East. The Cairo Opera House (bottom-right) is the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.Three years after the 1967 Six Day War, during which Israel had invaded and occupied Sinai, Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the Infitah economic reform policy, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike.
In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the October War, a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. It was an attempt to liberate the territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. Both the US and the USSR intervened and a cease-fire was reached. Despite not being a complete military success, most historians agree that the October War presented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to regain the Sinai in return for peace with Israel.
Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 peace treaty in exchange for the complete Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by the vast majority of Egyptians.[29] A fundamentalist military soldier assassinated Sadat in Cairo in 1981. He was succeeded by the incumbent Hosni Mubarak. In 2003, the Egyptian Movement for Change, popularly known as Kefaya, was launched to seek a return to democracy and greater civil liberties.
Identity
Main article: Egyptian Identity
Mahmoud Mokhtar's Egypt's Renaissance 1919-1928, Cairo University.The Nile Valley was home to one of the oldest cultures in the world, spanning three thousand years of continuous history. When Egypt fell under a series of foreign occupations after 343 BC, each left an indelible mark on the country's cultural landscape. Egyptian identity evolved in the span of this long period of occupation to accommodate, in principle, two new religions, Islam and Christianity; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, Egyptian Arabic.[30] The degree to which Egyptians identify with each layer of Egypt's history in articulating a sense of collective identity can vary. Questions of identity came to fore in the last century as Egypt sought to free itself from foreign occupation for the first time in two thousand years. Three chief ideologies came to head: ethno-territorial Egyptian nationalism, secular Arab nationalism and pan-Arabism, and Islamism. Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the nineteenth century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century.[31] Arab nationalism reached a peak under Nasser but was once again relegated under Sadat; meanwhile, the ideology espoused by Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood is present in small segments of the lower-middle strata of Egyptian society.[32]
Politics
National
Egypt has been a republic since 18 June 1953. President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak has been the President of the Republic since 14 October 1981, following the assassination of former-President Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office (28 years). He is the leader of the ruling National Democratic Party. Prime Minister Dr. Ahmed Nazif was sworn in as Prime Minister on 9 July 2004, following the resignation of Dr. Atef Ebeid from his office.
Although power is ostensibly organized under a multi-party semi-presidential system, whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the President and the Prime Minister, in practice it rests almost solely with the President who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. Egypt also holds regular multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election, in which Mubarak won a fifth consecutive term, was held in September 2005.
In late February 2005, President Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the 1952 movement, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy."[33] However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as Ayman Nour from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory.[34] Concerns were once again expressed after the 2005 presidential elections about government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging, in addition to police brutality and violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators.[35] After the election, Egypt imprisoned Nour, and the U.S. Government stated the "conviction of Mr. Nour, the runner-up in Egypt's 2005 presidential elections, calls into question Egypt's commitment to democracy, freedom, and the rule of law."[36]
As a result, most Egyptians are skeptical about the process of democratization and the role of the elections. Less than 25 percent of the country's 32 million registered voters (out of a population of more than 72 million) turned out for the 2005 elections.[37] A proposed change to the constitution would limit the president to two seven-year terms in office.[38]
Thirty-four constitutional changes voted on by parliament on 19 March 2007 prohibit parties from using religion as a basis for political activity; allow the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law to replace the emergency legislation in place since 1981, giving police wide powers of arrest and surveillance; give the president power to dissolve parliament; and end judicial monitoring of election.[39] As opposition members of parliament withdrew from voting on the proposed changes, it was expected that the referendum would be boycotted by a great number of Egyptians in protest of what has been considered a breach of democratic practices. Eventually it was reported that only 27% of the registered voters went to the polling stations under heavy police presence and tight political control of the ruling National Democratic Party. It was officially announced on 27 March 2007 that 75.9% of those who participated in the referendum approved of the constitutional amendments introduced by President Mubarak and was endorsed by opposition free parliament, thus allowing the introduction of laws that curb the activity of certain opposition elements, particularly Islamists.
The CIA World Factbook states that the legal system is based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); and that the judicial review takes place by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction only with reservations.
Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Egypt
Members of the Kefaya democracy movement protesting a fifth term for President Hosni Mubarak. See also video.Several local and international human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, have for many years criticized Egypt's human rights record as poor. In 2005, President Hosni Mubarak faced unprecedented public criticism when he clamped down on democracy activists challenging his rule. Some of the most serious human rights violations, according to HRW's 2006 report on Egypt, are routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.[40]
Discriminatory personal status laws governing marriage, custody and inheritance which put women at a disadvantage have also been cited. Laws concerning Coptic Christians which place restrictions on church building and open worship have been recently eased, but major construction still requires governmental approval, while sporadic attacks on Christians and churches continue.[41] Intolerance of Bahá'ís and unorthodox Muslim sects, such as Sufis and Shi'a, also remains a problem.[40] The Egyptian legal system only recognizes three religions: Islam, Christianity and Judaism. When the government moved to computerize identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Bahá'ís, could not obtain identification documents.[42] An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths can obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognized.[43] (For more on the status of religious minorities, see the Religion section.)
In 2005, the Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt as "6" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating), civil liberties as "5" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free."[44] It however noted that "Egypt witnessed its most transparent and competitive presidential and legislative elections in more than half a century and an increasingly unbridled public debate on the country's political future in 2005."[45] For freedom of the press, Egypt was deemed "Partly Free" in 2008, ranking 124 out of the 196 countries surveyed.[46]
In 2007, human rights group Amnesty International released a report criticizing Egypt for torture and illegal detention. The report alleges that Egypt has become an international center for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the War on Terror. The report calls on Egypt to bring its anti-terrorism laws into accordance with international human rights statutes and on other nations to stop sending their detainees to Egypt.[47] Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report, claiming that it was inaccurate and unfair, as well as causing deep offense to the Egyptian government.[48]
The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR) is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of human rights in Egypt.[49] In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights, headquartered in Cairo and headed by former UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali who directly reports to the president.[50] The council has come under heavy criticism by local NGO activists, who contend it undermines human rights work in Egypt by serving as a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its violations[51] and to provide legitimacy to repressive laws such as the recently renewed Emergency Law.[52] Egypt had announced in 2006 that it was in the process of abolishing the Emergency Law,[38] but in March 2007 President Mubarak approved several constitutional amendments to include "an anti-terrorism clause that appears to enshrine sweeping police powers of arrest and surveillance", suggesting that the Emergency Law is here to stay for the long haul.[53]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Egypt
Egypt's foreign policy operates along moderate lines. Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give Egypt extensive political influence in Africa and the Middle East. Cairo has been a crossroads of regional commerce and culture for centuries, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.
The permanent Headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairo and the Secretary General of the Arab League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amr Moussa is the current Secretary General. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978, as a protest to the signing by Egypt of a peace treaty with Israel, but returned in 1989.
Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, with the signing of the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty in 1979. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab states, and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute.
Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.
In the twenty-first century, Egypt has encountered a major problem with immigration, as millions of Africans attempt to enter Egypt fleeing poverty and war. Border control methods can be "harsh, sometimes lethal."[54]
Governorates and regions
Main articles: Governorates of Egypt and Markazes of Egypt
MatruhAlexandriaBeheiraKafr
el-SheikhDakahliaDamiettaGharbiaSharqiaMonufiaQalyubiaCairoGizaPort
SaidIsmailiaSuezNorth SinaiSouth SinaiFaiyumBeni SuefMinyaAsyutSohagQenaLuxor♦AswanRed
SeaNew ValleyEgypt is divided into 29 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions are then subdivided into towns and villages.
Each governorate has a capital, often carrying the same name as the governorate.
The tables (below) list the governorates in alphabetical order. In April 2008, Cairo and Giza have divided to 4 governorates, the new governorates are 6th of October and Helwan beside Cairo and Giza
Governorate Capital Location
Alexandria Alexandria Northern
Aswan Aswan Upper
Asyut Asyut Upper
Beheira Damanhur Lower
Beni Suef Beni Suef Upper
Cairo Cairo Middle
Dakahlia Mansura Lower
Damietta Damietta Lower
Faiyum Faiyum Upper
Gharbia Tanta Lower
Giza Giza Upper
Helwan Helwan Middle
Ismailia Ismailia Canal
Kafr el-Sheikh Kafr el-Sheikh Lower
Governorate Capital Location
Matruh Mersa Matruh Western
Minya Minya Upper
Monufia Shibin el-Kom Lower
New Valley Kharga Western
North Sinai Arish Sinai
Port Said Port Said Canal
Qalyubia Banha Lower
Qena Qena Upper
Red Sea Hurghada Eastern
Sharqia Zagazig Upper
Sohag Sohag Upper
South Sinai el-Tor Sinai
Suez Suez Canal
6th of October 6th of October Middle
Economy
Main article: Economy of Egypt
Cairo's city centre is a busy economic hubEgypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly-growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.[55]
The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investments in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has been receiving U.S. foreign aid (since 1979, an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Its main revenues however come from tourism as well as traffic that goes through the Suez Canal.
Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power. Substantial coal deposits are in the north-east Sinai, and are mined at the rate of about 600,000 tonnes (590,000 LT; 660,000 ST) per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at 1,940 cubic kilometres, and LNG is exported to many countries.
Economic conditions have started to improve considerably after a period of stagnation from the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the IMF has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.[citation needed] Some major economic reforms taken by the new government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by the year 2006.
Tourists ride in traditional Nile boat.FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) into Egypt has increased considerably in the past few years due to the recent economic liberalization measures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin, exceeding $6 billion in 2006.
Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the trickle down of the wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticize their government for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Often corruption is blamed by Egyptians as the main impediment to feeling the benefits of the newly attained wealth.[56][57][58] Major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure is promised by the government, with a large portion of the sum paid for the newly acquired 3rd mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat.[59]
The best known examples of Egyptian companies that have expanded regionally and globally are the Orascom Group and Raya. The IT sector has been expanding rapidly in the past few years, with many new start-ups conducting outsourcing business to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as numerous SME's. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya Contact Center, E Group Connections and C3 along with other start ups in that country. The sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs trying to capitalize on their country's huge potential in the sector, as well as constant government encouragement.
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Egypt and Egyptians
Egypt is the most populated country in the Middle East and the third most populous on the African continent, with an estimated 83 million people (as of April 2009). Egypt's population was estimated at 3 million when Napoleon invaded the country in 1798.[60] Almost all the population is concentrated along the banks of the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Approximately 90% of the population adheres to Islam and most of the remainder to Christianity, primarily the Coptic Orthodox denomination.[61] Apart from religious affiliation, Egyptians can be divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centers and the fellahin or farmers of rural villages. The last 40 years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances and massive increase in agricultural productivity,[62] made by the Green Revolution.[63]
Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in Egypt at 98% of the total population.[61] Ethnic minorities include the Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the Sinai Peninsula, the Berber-speaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, and the ancient Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal communities of Beja concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner of the country, and a number of Dom clans mostly in the Nile Delta and Faiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanization increases.
Egypt also hosts an unknown number of refugees and asylum seekers, but they are estimated to be between 500,000 and 3 million.[64] There are some 70,000 Palestinian refugees,[64] and about 150,000 recently arrived Iraqi refugees,[65] but the number of the largest group, the Sudanese, is contested.[66] The once-vibrant Greek and Jewish communities in Egypt have virtually disappeared, with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious occasions and for tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.
Media
Main article: Media of Egypt
Egyptian media are highly influential both in Egypt and the Arab World, attributed to large audiences and increasing freedom from government control.[67][68] Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this right.[67][69] After the Egyptian presidential election of 2005, Ahmed Selim, office director for Information Minister Anas al-Fiqi, declared an era of a "free, transparent and independent Egyptian media."[68]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Egypt
Cairo's unique cityscape with its ancient mosques. Since 640 AD, many mosques have been built throughout Egypt, thus Cairo has acquired the nickname of "city of a thousand minarets"Religion in Egypt controls many aspects of social life and is endorsed by law. Egypt is predominantly Muslim, with Muslims comprising between 80% and 90% of a population of around 80 million Egyptians[70][71][72][73][74][75][76] Almost the entirety of Egypt's Muslims are Sunni.[70] A significant number of Muslim Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders,[77] and there is a minority of Shi'a.
Most of the non-Muslims in Egypt are Christians. Christians represent around 10-20% of the population[70][72][73] and are the largest Christian community in the Middle East.[78][79][80][81][82][83][84] Over 90% of Egyptian Christians belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.[72][73][85] Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Evangelical Church of Egypt and various other Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria.
Millions of Egyptians follow the Christian faith as members of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.There is also a small, but nonetheless historically significant, non-immigrant Bahá'í population of around 2000,[86] and an even smaller community of Jews of about 200,[86][87] then a tiny number of Egyptians who identify as atheist and agnostic. The non-Sunni, non-Coptic communities range in size from several hundreds to a few thousand. The original Ancient Egyptian religion has all but disappeared.
According to the constitution of Egypt, any new legislation must at least implicitly agree with Islamic law; however, the constitution bans political parties with a religious agenda.[88]
Egypt hosts two major religious institutions. Al-Azhar University, founded in 970 A.D by the Fatimids as the first Islamic University in Egypt and the main Egyptian Church the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria established in the middle of the 1st century by Saint Mark.
In Egypt, Muslims and Christians live as neighbors, sharing a common history and national identity. They also share the same ethnicity, race, culture, and language.[86]
Al-Azhar Mosque founded in AD 970 by the Fatimids as the first Islamic University in EgyptReligion plays a central role in most Egyptians' lives, The Adhan (Islamic call to prayer) that is heard five times a day has the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to media and entertainment. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque minarets and is justifiably dubbed "the city of 1,000 minarets",[89] with a significant number of church towers. This religious landscape has been marred by a history of religious extremism,[42] recently witnessing a 2006 judgement of Egypt's Supreme Administrative Court, which made a clear legal distinction between "recognized religions" (i.e., Islam, Christianity, and Judaism) and all other religious beliefs. This ruling effectively delegitimizes and forbids practice of all but the three Abrahamic religions.[90] This judgment had made it necessary for non-Abrahamic religious communities to either commit perjury or be denied Egyptian identification cards (see Egyptian identification card controversy), until a 2008 Cairo court case ruled that unrecognized religious minorities may obtain birth certificates and identification documents, so long as they omit their religion on court documents.[43]
Religion in Egypt
religion percent
Islam 85%
Coptic Orthodox Christian 14%
Other Christian 1%
[91]
In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January the 7th) was recognized as an official holiday,[92] though Copts complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.[40] The Coptic community, as well as several human rights activists and intellectuals, maintain that the number of Christians occupying government posts is not proportional to the number of Copts in Egypt.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Egypt
Bibliotheca Alexandrina is a commemoration of the ancient Library of Alexandria in Egypt's second largest city.Egyptian culture has six thousand years of recorded history. Ancient Egypt was among the earliest civilizations and for millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the Middle East and other African countries. After the Pharaonic era, Egypt itself came under the influence of Hellenism, Christianity, and Islamic culture. Today, many aspects of Egypt's ancient culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern Western culture, itself with roots in ancient Egypt.
Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. Egypt has the highest number of Nobel Laureates in Africa and the Arab World. Some Egyptian born politicians were or are currently at the helm of major international organizations like Boutros Boutros-Ghali of the United Nations and Mohamed ElBaradei of the IAEA.
Renaissance
The work of early nineteenth-century scholar Rifa'a et-Tahtawi gave rise to the Egyptian Renaissance, marking the transition from Medieval to Early Modern Egypt. His work renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied the history, language and antiquities of Egypt.[93] Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like Muhammad Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to individual freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress.[94]
Art and architecture
Eighteenth dynasty painting from the tomb of Theban governor Ramose in Deir el-Madinah.The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art and architecture. The wall paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilization is renowned for its colossal pyramids, colonnades and monumental tombs. Well-known examples are the Pyramid of Djoser designed by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep, the Sphinx, and the temple of Abu Simbel. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to Mahmoud Mokhtar's famous sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic iconography of Isaac Fanous.
The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. Egypt's media and arts industry has flourished since the late nineteenth century, today with more than thirty satellite channels and over one hundred motion pictures produced each year. Cairo has long been known as the "Hollywood of the Middle East;" its annual film festival, the Cairo International Film Festival, has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.[95] To bolster its media industry further, especially with the keen competition from the Persian Gulf Arab States and Lebanon, a large media city was built. Some Egyptian-born actors, like Omar Sharif, have achieved worldwide fame.
Literature
Literature constitutes an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East.[96] The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in the Egyptian vernacular.[97] Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre amongst Egyptians, represented by the works of Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-AbnudiIn their belief, boats were used by the dead to accompany the sun around the world, as Heaven was referred to as “Upper Waters”. In Egyptian mythology, every night the serpentine god Apophis would attack the Sun Boat as it brought the sun (and as such order )back to the Kingdom in the morning. It is referred to as the “Boat of Millions” as all of the gods and all of the souls of the blessed dead may at one point or another be needed to defend or operate it.
Music
Main article: Music of Egypt
Upper Egyptian folk musicians from Kom Ombo.Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. In antiquity, Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the ney and the oud. Percussion and vocal music also became an important part of the local music tradition ever since. Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmud Osman, who influenced the later work of Egyptian music giants such as Amr Diab,Mohamed Mounir, Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez. From the 1970s onwards, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk music continues to be played during weddings and other festivities.
Festivals
Egypt is famous for its many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by all Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. Ramadan has a special flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as fawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt during Ramadan to witness the spectacle. The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim (Coptic: Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙ shom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.
Egypt is one of the boldest countries in the middle east in the music industry. The next generation of the Egyptian music is considered to be the rise, as the music was disrupted by some foreign influences, bad admixing, and abused oriental styles. The new arising talents starting from the late 90's are taking over the rein now as they play many diffenet genres of many different cultures. Rock And Metal music are prevailing widely in Egypt now,as much as the oriental jazz and folk music are becoming well-known now to the Egyptian and non-Egyptian fans
Sports
Cairo International Stadium during the 2006 African Cup of NationsFootball is the Popular National Sport of Egypt. Egyptian Soccer clubs El Ahly, El Zamalek, Ismaily, El-Ittihad El-Iskandary and El Masry are the most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long-time regional champions. The great rivalries keep the streets of Egypt energized as people fill the streets when their favorite team wins. Egypt is rich in soccer history as soccer has been around for over 100 years. The country is home to many African championships such as the Africa Cup of Nations. While, Egypt's national team has not qualified for the FIFA World Cup since 1990, the Egyptian team won the Africa Cup Of Nations an unprecedented six times, including two times in a row in 1957 and 1959 and again in 2006 and 2008, setting a world record.
Squash and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been known for its fierce competition in international championships since the 1930s. Amr Shabana is Egypt's best player and the winner of the world open three times and the best player of 2006.
The Egyptian Handball team also holds another record; throughout the 34 times the African Handball Nations Championship was held, Egypt won first place five times (including 2008), five times second place, four times third place, and came in fourth place twice. The team won 6th and 7th places in 1995, 1997 at the World Men's Handball Championship, and twice won 6th place at the 1996 and 2000 Olympics.
In 2007, Omar Samra joined Ben Stephens (England), Victoria James (Wales) and Greg Maud (South Africa) in putting together an expedition to climb Mount Everest from its South side. The Everest expedition began on 25 March 2007 and lasted for just over 9 weeks. On the 17th of May at precisely 9:49 am Nepal time, Omar became the first and youngest Egyptian to climb 8,850m Mount Everest. He also became the first Egyptian to climb Everest from its South face, the same route taken by Sir Edmund Hilary and Sherpa Tenzing in 1953.
Egypt has a long history of participation at the Summer Olympics since 1912.
Best results
Games Gold Silver Bronze Total
1928 Amsterdam 2 1 1 4
1936 Berlin 2 1 2 5
1948 London 2 2 1 5
1952 Helsinki 0 0 1 1
1960 Rome 0 1 1 2
1984 Los Angeles 0 1 0 1
1988 Seoul 0 1 0 1
2004 Athens 1 1 3 5
2008 Beijing 0 0 1 1
Total 7 7 10 24
Military
Two Egyptian Mi-17 helicopters after unloading troops during an exercise.Main article: Military of Egypt
The Egyptian Armed forces have a combined troop strength of around 450,000 active personnel over the four main military branches: the Army, the Navy, the Air Force and the Air Defense Command.[98]
See also
Egypt portal
Africa portal
Main article: Outline of Egypt
List of ancient Egypt topics
List of basic geography topics
List of Egypt-related articles (alphabetical index)
List of Egypt-related topics (topical index)
List of international rankings
List of modern Egypt-related topics
Ancient Egypt
Canal of the pharaohs
Capital of Egypt
Communications in Egypt
Copt
Egyptian language
Egyptian mythology
Egyptian pyramids
Egyptians
Flag of Egypt
History of Egypt
History of Armenians in Egypt
History of Greeks in Egypt
History of Italians in Egypt
History of the Jews in Egypt
Holy Family in Egypt
Industry in Egypt
Languages of Egypt
Masri (Egyptian Arabic)
Public holidays in Egypt
Red Sea Riviera
Transport in Egypt
Lists
Main list: List of basic Egypt topics
List of writers from Egypt
List of Egyptian companies
List of Egypt-related topics
List of Egyptians
List of Egyptian products & manufacturers
List of Egyptian universities
List of Rulers and heads of state of Egypt
Vice President of Egypt
Notes and references
^ a b Central Agency for Population Mobilisation and Statistics - Population Clock (July 2008)
^ a b c d "Egypt". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=469&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=47&pr.y=3 . Retrieved on 2009-04-22.
^ Rosalie, David (1997). Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh's Workforce. Routledge. p. 18.
^ "A Brief History of Alchemy". UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL SCHOOL OF CHEMISTRY. http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html . Retrieved on 2008-08-21.
^ Breasted, James Henry; Peter A. Piccione (2001). Ancient Records of Egypt. University of Illinois Press. pp. 76;40. ISBN 9780252069758. http://books.google.com/books?id=bT0q7nt1-gUC&client=firefox-a.
^ Biblical Hebrew E-Magazine. January, 2005
^ Hoffmeier, James K (October 1, 2007), "Rameses of the exodus narratives is the 13th B.C. Royal Ramessid Residence", Trinity Journal: 1, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3803/is_200710/ai_n21137941/pg_2
^ World Factbook area rank order
^ More changes ahead for Egypt
^ E. A. Pearce, Charles Gordon Smith, The Times Books World Weather Guide, (Times Books/Random House: 1990), p.40
^ Sun, sand and searing heat
^ Robert Pateman, Salwa El-Hamamsy, Egypt, (Marshall Cavendish: 2003), p.7
^ Hamza, Waleed. Land use and Coastal Management in the Third Countries: Egypt as a case. Accessed= 2007-06-10.
^ Soliman, KH. Rainfall over Egypt. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 80, issue 343, pp. 104-104.
^ Marsa Matruh, Egypt. Weatherbase.com. Last accessed February 12, 2008.
^ Contingency planning for rising sea levels in Egypt | IRIN News, March 2008
^ Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
^ "The Nile Valley 6000-4000 BC Neolithic". The British Museum. 2005. http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC . Retrieved on 2008-08-21.
^ Bard, Kathryn A. Ian Shaw, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 69.
^ Kamil, Jill. Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39
^ El-Daly, Okasha. Egyptology: The Missing Millennium. London: UCL Press, 2005. p. 140
^ Egypt - Major Cities, U.S. Library of Congress
^ Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, Nasser of the Arabs, published circa 1973, p 2.
^ Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, Nasser of the Arabs", p 2.
^ Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, Egypt: Politics and Society 1945-1981. London, 1982, George Allen & Unwin. p 11.
^ De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, Historical Dictionary of Egypt. Metuchen, New Jersey, USA; 1984; Scarecrow. p 17.
^ James Jankowski, Egypt, A Short History, p. 111
^ Jankowski, op cit., p. 112
^ Vatikiotis, p. 443
^ Raymon Kondos (February 15). "The Egyptian Identity: Pharaohs, Moslems, Arabs, Africans, Middle Easterners or Mediterranean People?". http://www.youregypt.com/issue3/topic.htm . Retrieved on 2008-08-21.
^ Jankowski, James. "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism" in Rashid Khalidi, ed. The Origins of Arab Nationalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, pp. 244-45
^ Dawisha, Adeed. Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2003, pp. 264-65, 267
^ Business Today Egypt. Mubarak throws presidential race wide open. March 2005.
^ Lavin, Abigail. Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour and Egypt's problematic attempt at free elections. March 27, 2006.
^ Murphy, Dan. Egyptian vote marred by violence. Christian Science Monitor. 26 May 2005.
^ United States "Deeply Troubled" by Sentencing of Egypt's Nour. U.S. Department of State, Published 24 December 2005
^ Gomez, Edward M. Hosni Mubarak's pretend democratic election. San Francisco Chronicle. September 13, 2005.
^ a b Egypt to begin process of lifting emergency laws. December 5, 2006.
^ Anger over Egypt vote timetable BBC News.
^ a b c Human Rights Watch. Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt. 2005
^ Church Building Regulations Eased
^ a b U.S. Department of State (2004-09-15). "Egypt: International Religious Freedom Report". Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35496.htm . Retrieved on 2008-01-30.
^ a b Johnston, Cynthia (2008-01-29). "Egypt Baha'is win court fight over identity papers". Reuters. http://africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnL29677385.html . Retrieved on 2008-01-30.
^ "Freedom in the World 2006" (PDF). Freedom House. 2005-12-16. http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/pdf/Charts2006.pdf . Retrieved on 2006-07-27.
See also Freedom in the World 2006, List of indices of freedom
^ Freedom House. Freedom in the World - Egypt. 2006
^ Freedom House. Freedom of the Press World Ranking. 2009
^ Egypt torture centre, report says. bbc.co.uk. Written 2007-4-11. Retrieved 2007-4-11.
^ Egypt rejects torture criticism. bbc.co.uk. Written 2007-4-13. Retrieved 2007-4-13.
^ Egyptian Organization for Human Rights
^ Official page of the Egyptian National Council for Human Rights.
^ Egyptian National Council for Human Rights Against Human Rights NGOs. EOHR. June 3, 2003.
^ Qenawy, Ahmed. The Egyptian Human Rights Council: The Apple Falls Close to the Tree. ANHRI. 2004
^ Egypt parliament approves changes in constitution. Reuters. March 20, 2007.
^ Desperate on the Border, ALASDAIR SOUSSI, Jerusalem Report, Nov. 9, 1953, [1]
^ "Egypt: Economy". LookLex Encyclopedia. http://lexicorient.com/e.o/egypt_2.htm . Retrieved on 2008-08-21.
^ IRIN Middle East | Middle East | Egypt: Corruption hampering development, says opposition report | Other | Breaking News
^ Daily News Egypt - Full Article
^ et - Full Story
^ Fatima El Saadani (August 2006). "Etisalat Wins Third License". Business Today. http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6902 . Retrieved on 2008-08-21.
^ Egypt - Population, U.S. Library of Congress
^ a b "Egyptian people section from the World Factbook". World Fact Book. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html class="topic" rel="nofollow" href="https://tengaged.com/posts/topic/People">#People. Retrieved on 2007-01-29.
^ BBC NEWS | The limits of a Green Revolution?
^ Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy
^ a b Refugees in Egypt.
^ Iraq: from a Flood to a Trickle: Egypt
^ See The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants for a lower estimate. The "The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights". Archived from the original on 2007-12-30. http://web.archive.org/web/20071230012918/http://www.eohr.org/ref/. states on its web site that in 2000 the World Council of Churches claimed that "between two and five million Sudanese have come to Egypt in recent years". Most Sudanese refugees come to Egypt in the hope of resettling in Europe or the US.
^ a b Country profiles: Egypt BBC
^ a b "Plus ca Change: The Role of the Media in Egypt's First Contested Presidential Elections", TBS
^ Freedom House 2007 report
^ a b c "Egypt from "The World Factbook"". American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). September 4, 2008. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html.
^ ""Religion/Islamic conservatism's revival attracts followers, worries governments"". Star Tribune. June 18, 2009. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=MN&p_theme=mn&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EFE4944AB794537&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM.
^ a b c "Egypt from "U.S. Department of State/Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs"". United States Department of State. September 30, 2008. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm.
^ a b c "Egypt from "Foreign and Commonwealth Office"". Foreign and Commonwealth Office -UK Ministry of Foreign Affairs. August 15, 2008. http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt.
^ "Fact Sheet from "Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Network"". E
Capital
(and largest city) Tunis
36°50′N 10°9′E / 36.833°N 10.15°E / 36.833; 10.15
Official languages Arabic[2] (de jure)
French (de facto)
Demonym Tunisian
Government Republic[2]
- President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
- Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi
Independence
- from France March 20, 1956
Area
- Total 163,610 km2 (92nd)
63,170 sq mi
- Water (%) 5.0
Population
- July 1, 2008 estimate 10,327,800[3] (79th)
- 2004 census 9,910,872[3]
- Density 63/km2 (133rd (2005))
163/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
- Total $82.226 billion[4]
- Per capita $7,962[4]
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
- Total $40.348 billion[4]
- Per capita $3,907[4]
Gini (2000) 39.8 (medium)
HDI (2007) ▲ 0.766 (medium) (91st)
Currency Tunisian dinar (TND)
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
- Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+1)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .tn
Calling code 216
Tunisia (Arabic: تونس Tūnis), officially the Tunisian Republic (الجمهورية التونسية al-Jumhūriyya at-Tūnisiyya), is a country located in North Africa. It is bordered by Algeria to the west and Libya to the southeast. It is also located southwest of the island of Sicily and south of Sardinia. Its size is almost 165,000 km² with an estimated population of just over 10,300,000. Its capital is Tunis. It is the northernmost country on the African continent, and the smallest of the nations situated along the Atlas mountain range. Around forty percent of the country is composed of the Sahara desert, with much of the remainder consisting of particularly fertile soil and a 1300 km coastline. Both played a prominent role in ancient times, first with the famous Phoenician city of Carthage, then as the Africa Province which became known as the bread basket of the Roman Empire, and then as the Maghreb region of various medieval Islamic states. Tunisia ranks high among Arab and African nations in reports released by The World Economic Forum.
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 World War II
3 Present-day politics
4 Economy
4.1 Transportation
5 Region
6 Religion
7 Governorates
8 Military
9 Geography
10 Demographics
11 Language
12 Education
13 Culture
14 Affiliations
15 Cultural references
16 Related topics
17 See also
18 References
19 External links
[edit] Etymology
The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis; a city and capital of modern-day Tunisia. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia, evolved from French Tunisie.[5] This name was introduced by French geographers and historians as part of their efforts to give names to their new occupied territories and protectorates. The French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages remained untouched such as the Spanish Túnez. In this case, the same name is used for both country and city as in Arabic and only by context, one can make the difference.[5]
The name Tunis can be attributed to different origins. It can be associated with the Phoenician goddess Tanith (aka Tunit), ancient city of Tynes or to the Berber root ens which means "to lie down".
Further information: Etymology of Tunis
[edit] History
Main article: History of Tunisia
At the beginning of recorded history, Tunisia was inhabited by Berber tribes. Its coast was settled by Phoenicians starting as early as the 10th century BC. The city of Carthage was founded in the 9th century B.C. by settlers from Tyre, now in modern day Lebanon. Legend says that Dido founded the city in 814 B.C., as retold in by the Greek writer Timaeus of Tauromenium. The settlers of Carthage brought their culture and religion from the Phoenicians and other Canaanites.
After a series of wars with Greek city-states of Sicily in the 5th century BC, Carthage rose to power and eventually became the dominant civilization in the Western Mediterranean. The people of Carthage worshipped a pantheon of Middle Eastern gods including Baal and Tanit. Tanit's symbol, a simple female figure with extended arms and long dress, is a popular icon found in ancient sites. The founders of Carthage also established a Tophet which was altered in Roman times.
Though the Romans referred to the new empire growing in the city of Carthage as Punic or Phoenician, the empire built around Carthage was an independent political entity from the other Phoenician settlements in the Western Mediterranean.
The Great Mosque of Al-ZaytunaA Carthaginian invasion of Italy led by Hannibal during the Second Punic War, one of a series of wars with Rome, nearly crippled the rise of the Roman Empire. Carthage was eventually conquered by Rome in the 2nd century BC, a turning point which led to ancient Mediterranean civilization having been influenced mainly by European instead of African cultures. After the Roman conquest, the region became one of the granaries of Rome, and was Latinized and Christianized. The Romans controlled nearly all of modern Tunisia, unlike other modern African countries, of which Rome only held the northern coast. It was conquered by the Vandals in the 5th century AD and reconquered by the commander Belisarius in the 6th century during the rule of Byzantine emperor Justinian.
Around the beginning of the 8th century the region was conquered by Arab Muslims, who founded the city of Kairouan which became the first city of Islam in North Africa. Tunisia flourished under Arab rule. Extensive irrigation installations were constructed to supply towns with water and promote agriculture (especially olive production)[6][7]. This prosperity permitted luxurious court life and was marked by the construction of new Palace cities such as al-Abassiya (809) and Raqadda (877)[6]. Successive Muslim dynasties ruled Tunisia (Ifriqiya at the time) with occasional instabilities caused mainly by Berber rebellions[citation needed]; of these reigns we can cite the Aghlabids (800-900) and Fatimids (909-972). After conquering Cairo, Fatimids abandoned North Africa to the local Zirids (Tunisia and parts of Eastern Algeria, 972-1148) and Hammadid (Central and eastern Algeria, 1015-1152)[8]. North Africa was submerged by their quarrels; political instability was connected to the decline of Tunisian trade and agriculture[6][9][10]. In addition the invasion of Tunisia by Banu Hilal, a warlike Arab Bedouin tribes encouraged by Fatimids of Egypt to seize North Africa, sent the region's urban and economic life into further decline[8]. The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun wrote that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert[9][11].
The coasts were held briefly by the Normans of Sicily in the 12th century and the following Arab reconquest made the last Christians in Tunisia disappear. In 1159, Tunisia was conquered by the Almohad caliphs. They were succeeded by the Berber Hafsids (c.1230 – 1574), under whom Tunisia prospered. In the late 16th century the coast became a pirate stronghold (see: Barbary States). In the last years of the Hafsids, Spain seized many of the coastal cities, but these were recovered by the Ottoman Empire. Under its Turkish governors, the Beys, Tunisia attained virtual independence. The Hussein dynasty of Beys, established in 1705, lasted until 1957. From 1881 - 1956 the country was under French colonization. European settlements in the country were actively encouraged; the number of French colonists grew from 34,000 in 1906 to 144,000 in 1945. In 1910 there were 105,000 Italians in Tunisia.[12]
[edit] World War II
Main article: Tunisia Campaign
In 1942 – 1943, Tunisia was the scene of the first major operations by the Allied Forces (the British Empire and the United States) against the Axis Powers (Italy and Germany) during World War II. The main body of the British army, advancing from their victory in Battle of el-Alamein under the command of British Field Marshal Montgomery, pushed into Tunisia from the south. The US and other allies, following their invasions of Algeria and Morocco in Operation Torch, invaded from the west.
General Rommel, commander of the Axis forces in North Africa, had hoped to inflict a similar defeat on the allies in Tunisia as German forces did in the Battle of France in 1940. Before the battle for el-Alamein, the allied forces had been forced to retreat toward Egypt. As such the battle for Tunisia was a major test for the allies. They figured out that in order to defeat Axis forces they would have to coordinate their actions and quickly recover from the inevitable setbacks the German-Italian forces would inflict.
On February 19, 1943, General Rommel launched an attack on the American forces in the Kasserine Pass region of Western Tunisia, hoping to inflict the kind of demoralizing and alliance-shattering defeat the Germans had dealt to Poland and France. The initial results were a disaster for the United States; the area around the Kasserine Pass is the site of many US war graves from that time.
However, the American forces were ultimately able to reverse their retreat. Having known a critical strategy in tank warfare, the Allies broke through the Mareth line on March 20, 1943. The allies subsequently linked up on April 8 and on May 2, 1943 the German-Italian Army in Tunisia surrendered. Thus, the United States, United Kingdom, Free French, and Polish (as well as other forces) were able to win a major battle as an allied army.
The battle, though often overshadowed by Stalingrad, represented a major allied victory of World War II largely because it forged the Alliance which would one day liberate Western Europe.
[edit] Present-day politics
Main article: Politics of Tunisia
Tunisia is a republican presidential system characterized by bicameral parliamentary system, including the Chamber of Representatives and the Chamber of Advisors. President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali has been in office since 1987, the year he acceded to the executive office of Habib Bourguiba after a team of medical experts judged Bourguiba unfit to exercise the functions of the office. At the time, Tunisia was on the verge of upheaval as Ennahdha's (banned Islamic party) supporters were attempting to seize power. Since his accession to power, also known as the Change, president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali launched a series of reforms meant to introduce political pluralism and boost the economy.
In Tunisia, the President is elected to 5-year terms. He appoints a Prime Minister and cabinet, who play a strong role in the execution of policy. Regional governors and local administrators also are appointed by the central government. Largely consultative mayors and municipal councils are elected. There is a bicameral legislative body, the Chamber of Deputies, which has 182 seats, 20% of which are reserved for the opposition parties and the Chamber of Advisors which is composed of representatives from political parties, from professional organisations and by personalities appointed by the president of the Republic. Both chambers are composed of more than 20% of women, making it one of the rare countries in the Arab world where women enjoy equal rights. Incidentally, it is also the only country in the Arab world where polygamy is forbidden by law. This is part of a provision in the country’s Code of Personal Status which was introduced by the former president Bourguiba in 1956.
The judiciary is independent. The military is professional and does not play a role in politics.
Since 1987, Tunisia has gradually reformed its political system, it has abolished life presidency and opened up parliament to opposition parties. There are currently nine political parties in Tunisia, six of whom are represented in parliament. The majority party known as the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD) in French, is composed of about 2 million members and more than 6000 representations throughout the country; although the party was renamed (in Bourguiba’s days it used to be known as the Socialist Destourian Party), its policies are still considered to be largely secular. Since 2007, all political parties represented in parliament benefit from state subsidies to cover the rising cost of paper and to expand their publication.
In July 2008, new constitutional provisions have been voted by the country’s parliament. These provisions which include lowering the voting age to 18, as well as easing the conditions for eligibility for the presidency, also allow for any head of political party, whether represented in parliament or not to present their candidacy, to run for president.
The state has also abolished the ‘depot legal’, which required prior authorization before sending to print, and issued legislation meant to bring amendments to the press code which provides journalists with greater freedom to express their ideas. Recently, the election of a syndicate of journalists met with a positive reaction from journalists. There are currently about 300 publications in Tunisia, most of them are financially and editorially independent. The Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), as well as other press freedom groups have regularly led fact finding missions and issued reports calling on Tunisia to free what they consider as detained journalists, however Tunisian authorities have reacted by saying that there are no journalists currently held for having expressed their ideas. The recent case in point was provided by the ‘Slim Boukhdir case’, a journalist (since then released before serving his term), who was sentenced to a year in jail for having insulted a police officer on duty, according to the version given by the authorities. CPJ denies this version, arguing he was convicted for having written articles critical of the president.
Tunisian authorities maintain that only pornographic material and articles inciting to hate, are banned by law. This is the case in both the printed press and the internet which has witnessed a considerable development with more than 1,1 million users and hundreds of internet cafes, known as ‘publinet.’
Human rights are also the subject of controversy between human rights groups such as Amnesty International, who argue that rights are not respected, and Tunisian authorities that make the point that in recent international fora, such as the United Nations New York based Human Rights Commission and the Human Rights Committee in Geneva (2008), where all of the countries of the world go through a ‘periodic review’, Tunisia's effort to promote a comprehensive system of human rights was officially acknowledged.
Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali, has consistently expressed his opposition to the presence of religious parties in parliament. While Tunisia cannot boast the natural resources its neighbors have, standards of living are among the best in the developing world.[13] This can be evidenced by two compelling economic observations: the level to which Tunisia has become self-sufficient in material goods, and the extent of real estate development in the cities and major towns of the country. Put simply, the mid-level retail outlet will typically offer goods of which more than 90% of which are internally produced. As to the rise of the building and construction industry, a fleeting visit to any of Tunisia's smaller towns (let alone the cities) will confirm that development is rampant: many projects, especially hotels, are newly opened, and many more stand as skeleton buildings, ready to be developed as soon as demand - and capital funds - are available to bring them to completion. Poverty has significantly been reduced thanks to a national solidarity policy and strong social commitment from the government and now stands at 3,8%, instead of some 50% in 1956.
See also: Foreign relations of Tunisia
Quoting from the The World Factbook:
Following independence from France in 1956, President Habib Bourguiba established a strict one-party state. He dominated the country for 31 years, repressing Islamic fundamentalism and establishing rights for women unmatched by any other Arab nation. In recent years, Tunisia has taken a moderate, non-aligned stance in its foreign relations. Domestically, it has sought to defuse rising pressure for a more open political society.
[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of Tunisia
Tunisia has a diverse economy, ranging from agriculture, mining, manufacturing, petroleum products and tourism. In 2007 it had a GDP of $35 billion (official exchange rates)[14], or $76.07 billion (purchasing power parity) [15]. It also has one of Africa and the Middle East's highest per-capita GDPs (PPP) [16].
The agricultural sector stands for 11,6% of the GDP, industry 25,7%, and services 62,8%. The industrial sector is mainly made up of clothing and footwear manufacturing, production of car parts, and electric machinery.
[edit] Transportation
The country maintains 19 232 km of roads,[17] where the A1 Tunis-Sfax, P1 Tunis-Libya and P7 Tunis-Algeria are major highways.
There are 30 airports, Tunis Carthage International Airport and Monastir International Airport being the most important ones. Tunisia is served by four airlines: Tunisair, Karthago Airlines, Nouvelair and Sevenair.
The railway network is operated by SNCFT, and amounts to 2135 km in total[18]. The Tunis area is served by a tram network, Metro Leger.
[edit] Region
The region of Tunisia has some deserts, including part of the Sahara Desert in the south. In the north and mid the land is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. Tunisia is not cold in the winter, where it snows, but the temperature still can get below 0°C (32°F). In the summer it can get up to 32°C (90°F). Most of Tunisia has four seasons.
[edit] Religion
The constitution declares Islam as the official state religion and requires the President to be Muslim. Tunisia also enjoys a significant degree of religious freedom, a right enshrined and protected in its constitution which guarantees the freedom to practice one's religion.[19] The country has a culture that encourages acceptance of other religions; religious freedom is widely practiced. However, the government has been accused[citation needed] of limiting the freedom of Muslims by banning the wearing the Headscarf (Hijab). The government believes the Hijab is a "garment of foreign origin having a partisan connotation".[citation needed]
Individual Tunisians are tolerant of religious freedom and generally do not inquire about a person's personal beliefs.[19]
religion percent
Islam 98%
Christian 1%
Other 1%
source: The World Factbook (CIA)
Cathedral of St. Vincent de PaulThe majority of Tunisia's population (98%) are Muslims, while 1% follow Christianity and the rest (1%) adhere to Judaism or other religions.[20] However, there are no reliable data on the number of practicing Muslims. Some reports stipulate that atheists form the second largest group in the country (making it probably on top of any other North African country)[21].
Tunisia has a sizable Christian community of around 25,000 adherents; mainly Catholics (20,000) and to a lesser degree Protestants. Judaism is the country's third largest religion with 1,500 members. One-third of the Jewish population lives in and around the capital. The remainder lives on the island of Djerba, where the Jewish community dates back 2,500 years[19].
Djerba, an island in the Gulf of Gabès, is home to El Ghriba synagogue, which is one of the oldest synagogues in the world. Many Jews consider it a pilgrimage site with celebrations taking place there once every year.
Tunisia is one of the very few North African countries where synagogues and churches are open to worshipers.[citation needed]
[edit] Governorates
Governorates of TunisiaMain articles: Governorates of Tunisia and Delegations of Tunisia
Tunisia is subdivided into 24 governorates, they are:
The governorates are divided into 264 "delegations" or "districts" (mutamadiyat), and further subdivided into municipalities (shaykhats)[22] and sectors (imadats).[23]
[edit] Military
Main article: Military of Tunisia
The Tunisian armed forces are divided into three branches:
Army
Air Force
Navy
Due to the peaceful relations Tunisia enjoys with its neighbours, its military spending is modest, 1.6% of GDP (2006). The army is responsible for national defence and also internal security. It appears that in recent years, Tunisia's defence forces have become more focused on Islamist groups in North Africa. The U.S. has conducted exercises with Tunisian defence forces due to this concern.[citation needed]
[edit] Geography
Topographic map of Tunisia.
Tunis bay
Ressas mount from Tunis LakeMain article: Geography of Tunisia
Tunisia is a country situated on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa, midway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Nile Valley. It is bordered by Algeria in the west and Libya in the south-east. An abrupt southern turn of its shoreline gives Tunisia two faces on the Mediterranean.
Despite its relatively small size, Tunisia has great geographical and climactic diversity. The Dorsal, an extension of the Atlas Mountains, traverses Tunisia in a northeasterly direction from the Algerian border in the west to the Cape Bon peninsula. North of the Dorsal is the Tell, a region characterized by low, rolling hills and plains, although in the northwestern corner of Tunisia, the land reaches elevations of 1,050 meters. The Sahil is a plain along Tunisia's eastern Mediterranean coast famous because of its olive monoculture. Inland from the Sahil, between the Dorsal and a range of hills south of Gafsa, are the Steppes. Much of the southern region is semi-arid and desert.
Tunisia has a coastline 1,148 kilometres in length. In maritime terms, the country claims a contiguous zone of 24 nautical miles, and a territorial sea of 12 nautical miles.
Tunisia's climate is temperate in the north, with mild rainy winters and hot, dry summers. The south of the country is desert. The terrain in the north is mountainous, which, moving south, gives way to a hot, dry central plain. The south is semiarid, and merges into the Sahara. A series of salt lakes, known as chotts or shatts, lie in an east-west line at the northern edge of the Sahara, extending from the Gulf of Gabes into Algeria. The lowest point is Shatt al Gharsah, at -17 m, and the highest is Jebel ech Chambi, at 1544 metres.
[edit] Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Tunisia
The majority (98%[24]) of modern Tunisians are Arab,[25] and are speakers of Tunisian Arabic. However, there is also a small (1% at most[26]) population of Berbers located in the Jabal Dahar mountains in the South East and on the island of Jerba, though many more have Berber ancestry. The Berbers primarily speak Berber languages, often called Shelha. The small European population (1%) consists mostly of French and Italians. There is also long established Jewish community in the country, the history of the Jews in Tunisia going back some 2,000 years. In 1948 the Jewish population was an estimated 105,000, but by 2003 only about 1,500 remained.[27]
The first people known to history in what is now Tunisia were the Berbers. Numerous civilizations and peoples have invaded, migrated to, and been assimilated into the population over the millennia, with varying influxes of population via conquest and settlement from Phoenicians/Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Arabs, Ottoman Turks, and French. Additionally, after the Reconquista and expulsion of non-Christians and Moriscos from Spain, many Spanish Moors and Jews also arrived at the end of the 15th century. In addition, from the late 1800s to after World War II, Tunisia was home to large populations of French and Italians (255,000 Europeans in 1956[28]), although nearly all of them, along with the Jewish population, left after Tunisia became independent.
Religion in Tunisia is dominated by Islam, to which a majority of Tunisians (98%) adhere.[29] One of the most ancient Jewish communities in the world resides in Jerba, where religious diversity thrives. The southern Tunisian island is home to 39 synagogues.
[edit] Language
Advert primarily in Tunisian ArabicArabic is Tunisia's official language. However, as is the case in the rest of the Arab world, a vernacular form of Arabic is used by the public. In Tunisia, the dialect is Tunisian Arabic, which is closely related to the Maltese language.[30] There is also a small minority of speakers of Shelha, a Berber language.[31]
French also plays a major role in the country, despite having no official status. It is widely used in education (e.g. as the language of instruction in the sciences in secondary school), the press, and in business. Most educated Tunisians are able to speak it. Many Tunisians, particularly those residing in large urban areas, readily mix Tunisian Arabic with French.
[edit] Education
Sadiki College in Tunis.Education is given a high priority and accounts for 6% of GNP. A basic education for children between the ages of 6 and 16 has been compulsory since 1991. Tunisia ranked 11th in the category of "quality of the educational systems" in The Global Competitiveness Report 2007, released by The World Economic Forum.
While children generally acquire Tunisian Arabic at home, when they enter school at age 6, they are taught to read and write in Standard Arabic. From the age of 8, they are taught French while English is introduced at the age of 12.
Main article: List of universities in Tunisia
Colleges and universities in Tunisia include:
Ecole Polytechnique de Tunisie
International University of Tunis
Université Libre de Tunis
Université de l'Aviation et Technologie de Tunisie
Institut National d'Agronomie de Tunis
Université des Sciences de Tunis
[edit] Culture
Main article: Culture of Tunisia
The culture of Tunisia is mixed due to their long established history of conquerors such as Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks, Spaniards, and the French who all left their mark on the country.
Current ethnicity consists of Arab/Berber (98%), European (1%), others (1%).
The dominant Religion in Tunisia is Sunni Islam (99%). There are also small groups of Christians and Jews.
[edit] Affiliations
Tunisia is a member of the following organizations:
Organization Dates
United Nations since 12 November 1956
Arab League since 1958
Organization of the Islamic Conference since 1969
World Trade Organization since 29 March 1995
Mediterranean Dialogue group since February 1995
[edit] Cultural references
In the movie Star Wars , the scenes on the planet Tatooine were filmed in Tunisia[32] and most of the sets are still there. The skeleton of a krayt dragon, in the background of one of the scenes, is also still found in the desert of Tunisia.
A Tunisian location in the TV show LOST plays a semi-crucial role.
[edit] Related topics
Communications in Tunisia
Cuisine of Tunisia
Tourism in Tunisia
History of the Jews in Tunisia
Tunisian Italians
Military of Tunisia
Transportation of Tunisia
Les Scouts Tunisiens
Gay rights in Tunisia
Islam in Tunisia
Music of Tunisia
Tunisian Arabic
List of schools in Tunisia
Women in Tunisia
Men in Tunisia
[edit] See also
Africa portal
Main article: Outline of Tunisia
[edit] References
^ "(Arabic) Article 4", Tunisia Constitution, 1957-07-25
^ a b "(Arabic) Article 1", Tunisia Constitution, 1957-07-25 Translation by the University of Bern: Tunisia is a BEAUTIFUL free State, independent and sovereign; its religion is the Islam, its language is Arabic, and its form is the Republic.
^ a b "National Statistics Online". National Statistics Institute of Tunisia. July 2008. http://www.ins.nat.tn/ . Retrieved on 7 January 2009. (Arabic)
^ a b c d "Tunisia". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=744&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=42&pr.y=8 . Retrieved on 2009-04-22.
^ a b Room, Adrian (2006). Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites. McFarland. pp. 385. ISBN 0786422483.
^ a b c Lapidus, Ira Marvin (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 302-303. ISBN 0521779332.
^ Ham, Anthony; Hole, Abigail; Willett, David. (2004). Tunisia (3 ed.). Lonely Planet. pp. 65. ISBN 1741041899.
^ a b Stearns, Peter N.; Leonard Langer, William (2001). The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged (6 ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 129-131. ISBN 0395652375.
^ a b Singh, Nagendra Kr (2000). International encyclopaedia of islamic dynasties Vol. 4: A Continuing Series. 4: A Continuing Series. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.. pp. 105-112. ISBN 8126104031.
^ J. Ki-Zerbo, G. Mokhtar, A. Adu Boahen, I. Hrbek. General history of Africa. James Currey Publishers. pp. 171-173. ISBN 0852550936.
^ Populations Crises and Population Cycles, Claire Russell and W.M.S. Russell
^ Smeaton Munro, Ion. Trough Fascism to World Power: A History of the Revolution in Italy. pag 221
^ [1]
^ "world economic forum competitivness report 2008-2009". http://www.weforum.org/documents/GCR0809/index.html . Retrieved on 2009-01-19.
^ "cia world factbook, Tunisia". https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ts.html . Retrieved on 2009-01-19.
^ "Wikipedia-list GDP per capita". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita . Retrieved on 2009-01-19.
^ "cia world factbook, Tunisia". https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ts.html . Retrieved on 2009-01-23.
^ "cia world factbook, Tunisia". https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ts.html . Retrieved on 2009-01-23.
^ a b c Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (2008), "Report on Tunisia", International Religious Freedom Report 2008, US State Department, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108494.htm
^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Tunisia
^ "Religions in Tunisia". http://looklex.com/e.o/tunisia_religions.htm . Retrieved on 2009-01-05.
^ Tunisia Governorates
^ Portail de l'industrie Tunisienne, in French
^ Tunisia.. CIA – The World Factbook.
^ Columbia Gazetteer
^ Q&A: The Berbers. BBC News. March 12, 2004.
^ The Jews of Tunisia. Jewish Virtual Library.
^ Tunisia. Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations. Thomson Gale. 2007. Encyclopedia.com.
^ "CIA — The World Factbook — Tunisia". https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ts.html class="topic" rel="nofollow" href="https://tengaged.com/posts/topic/People">#People. Retrieved on 2007-01-13.
^ Borg and Azzopardi-Alexander Maltese (1997:xiii) "The immediate source for the Arabic vernacular spoken in Malta was Muslim Sicily, but its ultimate origin appears to have been Tunisia. In fact, Maltese displays some areal traits typical of Maghrebine Arabic, although during the past eight hundred years of independent evolution it has drifted apart from Tunisian Arabic."
^ Gabsi, Zouhir (2003) 'An outline of the Shilha (Berber) vernacular of Douiret (Southern Tunisia)' [2]
^ Krayt dragon - Wookieepedia, the Star Wars Wiki
[edit] External links
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Learning resources from WikiversityGovernment
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General information
Country Profile from BBC News
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Template:International Religious Freedom Report 2003
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Wikimedia Atlas of Tunisia
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News media
The North Africa Journal business news
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Photography gallery
Tunisia.com Gui
Capital
(and largest city) Tunis
36°50′N 10°9′E / 36.833°N 10.15°E / 36.833; 10.15
Official languages Arabic[2] (de jure)
French (de facto)
Demonym Tunisian
Government Republic[2]
- President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
- Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi
Independence
- from France March 20, 1956
Area
- Total 163,610 km2 (92nd)
63,170 sq mi
- Water (%) 5.0
Population
- July 1, 2008 estimate 10,327,800[3] (79th)
- 2004 census 9,910,872[3]
- Density 63/km2 (133rd (2005))
163/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
- Total $82.226 billion[4]
- Per capita $7,962[4]
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
- Total $40.348 billion[4]
- Per capita $3,907[4]
Gini (2000) 39.8 (medium)
HDI (2007) ▲ 0.766 (medium) (91st)
Currency Tunisian dinar (TND)
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
- Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+1)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .tn
Calling code 216
Tunisia (Arabic: تونس Tūnis), officially the Tunisian Republic (الجمهورية التونسية al-Jumhūriyya at-Tūnisiyya), is a country located in North Africa. It is bordered by Algeria to the west and Libya to the southeast. It is also located southwest of the island of Sicily and south of Sardinia. Its size is almost 165,000 km² with an estimated population of just over 10,300,000. Its capital is Tunis. It is the northernmost country on the African continent, and the smallest of the nations situated along the Atlas mountain range. Around forty percent of the country is composed of the Sahara desert, with much of the remainder consisting of particularly fertile soil and a 1300 km coastline. Both played a prominent role in ancient times, first with the famous Phoenician city of Carthage, then as the Africa Province which became known as the bread basket of the Roman Empire, and then as the Maghreb region of various medieval Islamic states. Tunisia ranks high among Arab and African nations in reports released by The World Economic Forum.
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 World War II
3 Present-day politics
4 Economy
4.1 Transportation
5 Region
6 Religion
7 Governorates
8 Military
9 Geography
10 Demographics
11 Language
12 Education
13 Culture
14 Affiliations
15 Cultural references
16 Related topics
17 See also
18 References
19 External links
[edit] Etymology
The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis; a city and capital of modern-day Tunisia. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia, evolved from French Tunisie.[5] This name was introduced by French geographers and historians as part of their efforts to give names to their new occupied territories and protectorates. The French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages remained untouched such as the Spanish Túnez. In this case, the same name is used for both country and city as in Arabic and only by context, one can make the difference.[5]
The name Tunis can be attributed to different origins. It can be associated with the Phoenician goddess Tanith (aka Tunit), ancient city of Tynes or to the Berber root ens which means "to lie down".
Further information: Etymology of Tunis
[edit] History
Main article: History of Tunisia
At the beginning of recorded history, Tunisia was inhabited by Berber tribes. Its coast was settled by Phoenicians starting as early as the 10th century BC. The city of Carthage was founded in the 9th century B.C. by settlers from Tyre, now in modern day Lebanon. Legend says that Dido founded the city in 814 B.C., as retold in by the Greek writer Timaeus of Tauromenium. The settlers of Carthage brought their culture and religion from the Phoenicians and other Canaanites.
After a series of wars with Greek city-states of Sicily in the 5th century BC, Carthage rose to power and eventually became the dominant civilization in the Western Mediterranean. The people of Carthage worshipped a pantheon of Middle Eastern gods including Baal and Tanit. Tanit's symbol, a simple female figure with extended arms and long dress, is a popular icon found in ancient sites. The founders of Carthage also established a Tophet which was altered in Roman times.
Though the Romans referred to the new empire growing in the city of Carthage as Punic or Phoenician, the empire built around Carthage was an independent political entity from the other Phoenician settlements in the Western Mediterranean.
The Great Mosque of Al-ZaytunaA Carthaginian invasion of Italy led by Hannibal during the Second Punic War, one of a series of wars with Rome, nearly crippled the rise of the Roman Empire. Carthage was eventually conquered by Rome in the 2nd century BC, a turning point which led to ancient Mediterranean civilization having been influenced mainly by European instead of African cultures. After the Roman conquest, the region became one of the granaries of Rome, and was Latinized and Christianized. The Romans controlled nearly all of modern Tunisia, unlike other modern African countries, of which Rome only held the northern coast. It was conquered by the Vandals in the 5th century AD and reconquered by the commander Belisarius in the 6th century during the rule of Byzantine emperor Justinian.
Around the beginning of the 8th century the region was conquered by Arab Muslims, who founded the city of Kairouan which became the first city of Islam in North Africa. Tunisia flourished under Arab rule. Extensive irrigation installations were constructed to supply towns with water and promote agriculture (especially olive production)[6][7]. This prosperity permitted luxurious court life and was marked by the construction of new Palace cities such as al-Abassiya (809) and Raqadda (877)[6]. Successive Muslim dynasties ruled Tunisia (Ifriqiya at the time) with occasional instabilities caused mainly by Berber rebellions[citation needed]; of these reigns we can cite the Aghlabids (800-900) and Fatimids (909-972). After conquering Cairo, Fatimids abandoned North Africa to the local Zirids (Tunisia and parts of Eastern Algeria, 972-1148) and Hammadid (Central and eastern Algeria, 1015-1152)[8]. North Africa was submerged by their quarrels; political instability was connected to the decline of Tunisian trade and agriculture[6][9][10]. In addition the invasion of Tunisia by Banu Hilal, a warlike Arab Bedouin tribes encouraged by Fatimids of Egypt to seize North Africa, sent the region's urban and economic life into further decline[8]. The Arab historian Ibn Khaldun wrote that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert[9][11].
The coasts were held briefly by the Normans of Sicily in the 12th century and the following Arab reconquest made the last Christians in Tunisia disappear. In 1159, Tunisia was conquered by the Almohad caliphs. They were succeeded by the Berber Hafsids (c.1230 – 1574), under whom Tunisia prospered. In the late 16th century the coast became a pirate stronghold (see: Barbary States). In the last years of the Hafsids, Spain seized many of the coastal cities, but these were recovered by the Ottoman Empire. Under its Turkish governors, the Beys, Tunisia attained virtual independence. The Hussein dynasty of Beys, established in 1705, lasted until 1957. From 1881 - 1956 the country was under French colonization. European settlements in the country were actively encouraged; the number of French colonists grew from 34,000 in 1906 to 144,000 in 1945. In 1910 there were 105,000 Italians in Tunisia.[12]
[edit] World War II
Main article: Tunisia Campaign
In 1942 – 1943, Tunisia was the scene of the first major operations by the Allied Forces (the British Empire and the United States) against the Axis Powers (Italy and Germany) during World War II. The main body of the British army, advancing from their victory in Battle of el-Alamein under the command of British Field Marshal Montgomery, pushed into Tunisia from the south. The US and other allies, following their invasions of Algeria and Morocco in Operation Torch, invaded from the west.
General Rommel, commander of the Axis forces in North Africa, had hoped to inflict a similar defeat on the allies in Tunisia as German forces did in the Battle of France in 1940. Before the battle for el-Alamein, the allied forces had been forced to retreat toward Egypt. As such the battle for Tunisia was a major test for the allies. They figured out that in order to defeat Axis forces they would have to coordinate their actions and quickly recover from the inevitable setbacks the German-Italian forces would inflict.
On February 19, 1943, General Rommel launched an attack on the American forces in the Kasserine Pass region of Western Tunisia, hoping to inflict the kind of demoralizing and alliance-shattering defeat the Germans had dealt to Poland and France. The initial results were a disaster for the United States; the area around the Kasserine Pass is the site of many US war graves from that time.
However, the American forces were ultimately able to reverse their retreat. Having known a critical strategy in tank warfare, the Allies broke through the Mareth line on March 20, 1943. The allies subsequently linked up on April 8 and on May 2, 1943 the German-Italian Army in Tunisia surrendered. Thus, the United States, United Kingdom, Free French, and Polish (as well as other forces) were able to win a major battle as an allied army.
The battle, though often overshadowed by Stalingrad, represented a major allied victory of World War II largely because it forged the Alliance which would one day liberate Western Europe.
[edit] Present-day politics
Main article: Politics of Tunisia
Tunisia is a republican presidential system characterized by bicameral parliamentary system, including the Chamber of Representatives and the Chamber of Advisors. President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali has been in office since 1987, the year he acceded to the executive office of Habib Bourguiba after a team of medical experts judged Bourguiba unfit to exercise the functions of the office. At the time, Tunisia was on the verge of upheaval as Ennahdha's (banned Islamic party) supporters were attempting to seize power. Since his accession to power, also known as the Change, president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali launched a series of reforms meant to introduce political pluralism and boost the economy.
In Tunisia, the President is elected to 5-year terms. He appoints a Prime Minister and cabinet, who play a strong role in the execution of policy. Regional governors and local administrators also are appointed by the central government. Largely consultative mayors and municipal councils are elected. There is a bicameral legislative body, the Chamber of Deputies, which has 182 seats, 20% of which are reserved for the opposition parties and the Chamber of Advisors which is composed of representatives from political parties, from professional organisations and by personalities appointed by the president of the Republic. Both chambers are composed of more than 20% of women, making it one of the rare countries in the Arab world where women enjoy equal rights. Incidentally, it is also the only country in the Arab world where polygamy is forbidden by law. This is part of a provision in the country’s Code of Personal Status which was introduced by the former president Bourguiba in 1956.
The judiciary is independent. The military is professional and does not play a role in politics.
Since 1987, Tunisia has gradually reformed its political system, it has abolished life presidency and opened up parliament to opposition parties. There are currently nine political parties in Tunisia, six of whom are represented in parliament. The majority party known as the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD) in French, is composed of about 2 million members and more than 6000 representations throughout the country; although the party was renamed (in Bourguiba’s days it used to be known as the Socialist Destourian Party), its policies are still considered to be largely secular. Since 2007, all political parties represented in parliament benefit from state subsidies to cover the rising cost of paper and to expand their publication.
In July 2008, new constitutional provisions have been voted by the country’s parliament. These provisions which include lowering the voting age to 18, as well as easing the conditions for eligibility for the presidency, also allow for any head of political party, whether represented in parliament or not to present their candidacy, to run for president.
The state has also abolished the ‘depot legal’, which required prior authorization before sending to print, and issued legislation meant to bring amendments to the press code which provides journalists with greater freedom to express their ideas. Recently, the election of a syndicate of journalists met with a positive reaction from journalists. There are currently about 300 publications in Tunisia, most of them are financially and editorially independent. The Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), as well as other press freedom groups have regularly led fact finding missions and issued reports calling on Tunisia to free what they consider as detained journalists, however Tunisian authorities have reacted by saying that there are no journalists currently held for having expressed their ideas. The recent case in point was provided by the ‘Slim Boukhdir case’, a journalist (since then released before serving his term), who was sentenced to a year in jail for having insulted a police officer on duty, according to the version given by the authorities. CPJ denies this version, arguing he was convicted for having written articles critical of the president.
Tunisian authorities maintain that only pornographic material and articles inciting to hate, are banned by law. This is the case in both the printed press and the internet which has witnessed a considerable development with more than 1,1 million users and hundreds of internet cafes, known as ‘publinet.’
Human rights are also the subject of controversy between human rights groups such as Amnesty International, who argue that rights are not respected, and Tunisian authorities that make the point that in recent international fora, such as the United Nations New York based Human Rights Commission and the Human Rights Committee in Geneva (2008), where all of the countries of the world go through a ‘periodic review’, Tunisia's effort to promote a comprehensive system of human rights was officially acknowledged.
Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali, has consistently expressed his opposition to the presence of religious parties in parliament. While Tunisia cannot boast the natural resources its neighbors have, standards of living are among the best in the developing world.[13] This can be evidenced by two compelling economic observations: the level to which Tunisia has become self-sufficient in material goods, and the extent of real estate development in the cities and major towns of the country. Put simply, the mid-level retail outlet will typically offer goods of which more than 90% of which are internally produced. As to the rise of the building and construction industry, a fleeting visit to any of Tunisia's smaller towns (let alone the cities) will confirm that development is rampant: many projects, especially hotels, are newly opened, and many more stand as skeleton buildings, ready to be developed as soon as demand - and capital funds - are available to bring them to completion. Poverty has significantly been reduced thanks to a national solidarity policy and strong social commitment from the government and now stands at 3,8%, instead of some 50% in 1956.
See also: Foreign relations of Tunisia
Quoting from the The World Factbook:
Following independence from France in 1956, President Habib Bourguiba established a strict one-party state. He dominated the country for 31 years, repressing Islamic fundamentalism and establishing rights for women unmatched by any other Arab nation. In recent years, Tunisia has taken a moderate, non-aligned stance in its foreign relations. Domestically, it has sought to defuse rising pressure for a more open political society.
[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of Tunisia
Tunisia has a diverse economy, ranging from agriculture, mining, manufacturing, petroleum products and tourism. In 2007 it had a GDP of $35 billion (official exchange rates)[14], or $76.07 billion (purchasing power parity) [15]. It also has one of Africa and the Middle East's highest per-capita GDPs (PPP) [16].
The agricultural sector stands for 11,6% of the GDP, industry 25,7%, and services 62,8%. The industrial sector is mainly made up of clothing and footwear manufacturing, production of car parts, and electric machinery.
[edit] Transportation
The country maintains 19 232 km of roads,[17] where the A1 Tunis-Sfax, P1 Tunis-Libya and P7 Tunis-Algeria are major highways.
There are 30 airports, Tunis Carthage International Airport and Monastir International Airport being the most important ones. Tunisia is served by four airlines: Tunisair, Karthago Airlines, Nouvelair and Sevenair.
The railway network is operated by SNCFT, and amounts to 2135 km in total[18]. The Tunis area is served by a tram network, Metro Leger.
[edit] Region
The region of Tunisia has some deserts, including part of the Sahara Desert in the south. In the north and mid the land is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea. Tunisia is not cold in the winter, where it snows, but the temperature still can get below 0°C (32°F). In the summer it can get up to 32°C (90°F). Most of Tunisia has four seasons.
[edit] Religion
The constitution declares Islam as the official state religion and requires the President to be Muslim. Tunisia also enjoys a significant degree of religious freedom, a right enshrined and protected in its constitution which guarantees the freedom to practice one's religion.[19] The country has a culture that encourages acceptance of other religions; religious freedom is widely practiced. However, the government has been accused[citation needed] of limiting the freedom of Muslims by banning the wearing the Headscarf (Hijab). The government believes the Hijab is a "garment of foreign origin having a partisan connotation".[citation needed]
Individual Tunisians are tolerant of religious freedom and generally do not inquire about a person's personal beliefs.[19]
religion percent
Islam 98%
Christian 1%
Other 1%
source: The World Factbook (CIA)
Cathedral of St. Vincent de PaulThe majority of Tunisia's population (98%) are Muslims, while 1% follow Christianity and the rest (1%) adhere to Judaism or other religions.[20] However, there are no reliable data on the number of practicing Muslims. Some reports stipulate that atheists form the second largest group in the country (making it probably on top of any other North African country)[21].
Tunisia has a sizable Christian community of around 25,000 adherents; mainly Catholics (20,000) and to a lesser degree Protestants. Judaism is the country's third largest religion with 1,500 members. One-third of the Jewish population lives in and around the capital. The remainder lives on the island of Djerba, where the Jewish community dates back 2,500 years[19].
Djerba, an island in the Gulf of Gabès, is home to El Ghriba synagogue, which is one of the oldest synagogues in the world. Many Jews consider it a pilgrimage site with celebrations taking place there once every year.
Tunisia is one of the very few North African countries where synagogues and churches are open to worshipers.[citation needed]
[edit] Governorates
Governorates of TunisiaMain articles: Governorates of Tunisia and Delegations of Tunisia
Tunisia is subdivided into 24 governorates, they are:
The governorates are divided into 264 "delegations" or "districts" (mutamadiyat), and further subdivided into municipalities (shaykhats)[22] and sectors (imadats).[23]
[edit] Military
Main article: Military of Tunisia
The Tunisian armed forces are divided into three branches:
Army
Air Force
Navy
Due to the peaceful relations Tunisia enjoys with its neighbours, its military spending is modest, 1.6% of GDP (2006). The army is responsible for national defence and also internal security. It appears that in recent years, Tunisia's defence forces have become more focused on Islamist groups in North Africa. The U.S. has conducted exercises with Tunisian defence forces due to this concern.[citation needed]
[edit] Geography
Topographic map of Tunisia.
Tunis bay
Ressas mount from Tunis LakeMain article: Geography of Tunisia
Tunisia is a country situated on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa, midway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Nile Valley. It is bordered by Algeria in the west and Libya in the south-east. An abrupt southern turn of its shoreline gives Tunisia two faces on the Mediterranean.
Despite its relatively small size, Tunisia has great geographical and climactic diversity. The Dorsal, an extension of the Atlas Mountains, traverses Tunisia in a northeasterly direction from the Algerian border in the west to the Cape Bon peninsula. North of the Dorsal is the Tell, a region characterized by low, rolling hills and plains, although in the northwestern corner of Tunisia, the land reaches elevations of 1,050 meters. The Sahil is a plain along Tunisia's eastern Mediterranean coast famous because of its olive monoculture. Inland from the Sahil, between the Dorsal and a range of hills south of Gafsa, are the Steppes. Much of the southern region is semi-arid and desert.
Tunisia has a coastline 1,148 kilometres in length. In maritime terms, the country claims a contiguous zone of 24 nautical miles, and a territorial sea of 12 nautical miles.
Tunisia's climate is temperate in the north, with mild rainy winters and hot, dry summers. The south of the country is desert. The terrain in the north is mountainous, which, moving south, gives way to a hot, dry central plain. The south is semiarid, and merges into the Sahara. A series of salt lakes, known as chotts or shatts, lie in an east-west line at the northern edge of the Sahara, extending from the Gulf of Gabes into Algeria. The lowest point is Shatt al Gharsah, at -17 m, and the highest is Jebel ech Chambi, at 1544 metres.
[edit] Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Tunisia
The majority (98%[24]) of modern Tunisians are Arab,[25] and are speakers of Tunisian Arabic. However, there is also a small (1% at most[26]) population of Berbers located in the Jabal Dahar mountains in the South East and on the island of Jerba, though many more have Berber ancestry. The Berbers primarily speak Berber languages, often called Shelha. The small European population (1%) consists mostly of French and Italians. There is also long established Jewish community in the country, the history of the Jews in Tunisia going back some 2,000 years. In 1948 the Jewish population was an estimated 105,000, but by 2003 only about 1,500 remained.[27]
The first people known to history in what is now Tunisia were the Berbers. Numerous civilizations and peoples have invaded, migrated to, and been assimilated into the population over the millennia, with varying influxes of population via conquest and settlement from Phoenicians/Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Arabs, Ottoman Turks, and French. Additionally, after the Reconquista and expulsion of non-Christians and Moriscos from Spain, many Spanish Moors and Jews also arrived at the end of the 15th century. In addition, from the late 1800s to after World War II, Tunisia was home to large populations of French and Italians (255,000 Europeans in 1956[28]), although nearly all of them, along with the Jewish population, left after Tunisia became independent.
Religion in Tunisia is dominated by Islam, to which a majority of Tunisians (98%) adhere.[29] One of the most ancient Jewish communities in the world resides in Jerba, where religious diversity thrives. The southern Tunisian island is home to 39 synagogues.
[edit] Language
Advert primarily in Tunisian ArabicArabic is Tunisia's official language. However, as is the case in the rest of the Arab world, a vernacular form of Arabic is used by the public. In Tunisia, the dialect is Tunisian Arabic, which is closely related to the Maltese language.[30] There is also a small minority of speakers of Shelha, a Berber language.[31]
French also plays a major role in the country, despite having no official status. It is widely used in education (e.g. as the language of instruction in the sciences in secondary school), the press, and in business. Most educated Tunisians are able to speak it. Many Tunisians, particularly those residing in large urban areas, readily mix Tunisian Arabic with French.
[edit] Education
Sadiki College in Tunis.Education is given a high priority and accounts for 6% of GNP. A basic education for children between the ages of 6 and 16 has been compulsory since 1991. Tunisia ranked 11th in the category of "quality of the educational systems" in The Global Competitiveness Report 2007, released by The World Economic Forum.
While children generally acquire Tunisian Arabic at home, when they enter school at age 6, they are taught to read and write in Standard Arabic. From the age of 8, they are taught French while English is introduced at the age of 12.
Main article: List of universities in Tunisia
Colleges and universities in Tunisia include:
Ecole Polytechnique de Tunisie
International University of Tunis
Université Libre de Tunis
Université de l'Aviation et Technologie de Tunisie
Institut National d'Agronomie de Tunis
Université des Sciences de Tunis
[edit] Culture
Main article: Culture of Tunisia
The culture of Tunisia is mixed due to their long established history of conquerors such as Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks, Spaniards, and the French who all left their mark on the country.
Current ethnicity consists of Arab/Berber (98%), European (1%), others (1%).
The dominant Religion in Tunisia is Sunni Islam (99%). There are also small groups of Christians and Jews.
[edit] Affiliations
Tunisia is a member of the following organizations:
Organization Dates
United Nations since 12 November 1956
Arab League since 1958
Organization of the Islamic Conference since 1969
World Trade Organization since 29 March 1995
Mediterranean Dialogue group since February 1995
[edit] Cultural references
In the movie Star Wars , the scenes on the planet Tatooine were filmed in Tunisia[32] and most of the sets are still there. The skeleton of a krayt dragon, in the background of one of the scenes, is also still found in the desert of Tunisia.
A Tunisian location in the TV show LOST plays a semi-crucial role.
[edit] Related topics
Communications in Tunisia
Cuisine of Tunisia
Tourism in Tunisia
History of the Jews in Tunisia
Tunisian Italians
Military of Tunisia
Transportation of Tunisia
Les Scouts Tunisiens
Gay rights in Tunisia
Islam in Tunisia
Music of Tunisia
Tunisian Arabic
List of schools in Tunisia
Women in Tunisia
Men in Tunisia
[edit] See also
Africa portal
Main article: Outline of Tunisia
[edit] References
^ "(Arabic) Article 4", Tunisia Constitution, 1957-07-25
^ a b "(Arabic) Article 1", Tunisia Constitution, 1957-07-25 Translation by the University of Bern: Tunisia is a BEAUTIFUL free State, independent and sovereign; its religion is the Islam, its language is Arabic, and its form is the Republic.
^ a b "National Statistics Online". National Statistics Institute of Tunisia. July 2008. http://www.ins.nat.tn/ . Retrieved on 7 January 2009. (Arabic)
^ a b c d "Tunisia". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=744&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=42&pr.y=8 . Retrieved on 2009-04-22.
^ a b Room, Adrian (2006). Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites. McFarland. pp. 385. ISBN 0786422483.
^ a b c Lapidus, Ira Marvin (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 302-303. ISBN 0521779332.
^ Ham, Anthony; Hole, Abigail; Willett, David. (2004). Tunisia (3 ed.). Lonely Planet. pp. 65. ISBN 1741041899.
^ a b Stearns, Peter N.; Leonard Langer, William (2001). The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern, Chronologically Arranged (6 ed.). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 129-131. ISBN 0395652375.
^ a b Singh, Nagendra Kr (2000). International encyclopaedia of islamic dynasties Vol. 4: A Continuing Series. 4: A Continuing Series. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.. pp. 105-112. ISBN 8126104031.
^ J. Ki-Zerbo, G. Mokhtar, A. Adu Boahen, I. Hrbek. General history of Africa. James Currey Publishers. pp. 171-173. ISBN 0852550936.
^ Populations Crises and Population Cycles, Claire Russell and W.M.S. Russell
^ Smeaton Munro, Ion. Trough Fascism to World Power: A History of the Revolution in Italy. pag 221
^ [1]
^ "world economic forum competitivness report 2008-2009". http://www.weforum.org/documents/GCR0809/index.html . Retrieved on 2009-01-19.
^ "cia world factbook, Tunisia". https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ts.html . Retrieved on 2009-01-19.
^ "Wikipedia-list GDP per capita". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita . Retrieved on 2009-01-19.
^ "cia world factbook, Tunisia". https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ts.html . Retrieved on 2009-01-23.
^ "cia world factbook, Tunisia". https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ts.html . Retrieved on 2009-01-23.
^ a b c Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor (2008), "Report on Tunisia", International Religious Freedom Report 2008, US State Department, http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108494.htm
^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Tunisia
^ "Religions in Tunisia". http://looklex.com/e.o/tunisia_religions.htm . Retrieved on 2009-01-05.
^ Tunisia Governorates
^ Portail de l'industrie Tunisienne, in French
^ Tunisia.. CIA – The World Factbook.
^ Columbia Gazetteer
^ Q&A: The Berbers. BBC News. March 12, 2004.
^ The Jews of Tunisia. Jewish Virtual Library.
^ Tunisia. Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations. Thomson Gale. 2007. Encyclopedia.com.
^ "CIA — The World Factbook — Tunisia". https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ts.html class="topic" rel="nofollow" href="https://tengaged.com/posts/topic/People">#People. Retrieved on 2007-01-13.
^ Borg and Azzopardi-Alexander Maltese (1997:xiii) "The immediate source for the Arabic vernacular spoken in Malta was Muslim Sicily, but its ultimate origin appears to have been Tunisia. In fact, Maltese displays some areal traits typical of Maghrebine Arabic, although during the past eight hundred years of independent evolution it has drifted apart from Tunisian Arabic."
^ Gabsi, Zouhir (2003) 'An outline of the Shilha (Berber) vernacular of Douiret (Southern Tunisia)' [2]
^ Krayt dragon - Wookieepedia, the Star Wars Wiki
[edit] External links
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This article is about the country of Egypt. For a topical guide of this subject, see Outline of Egypt. For other uses, see Egypt (disambiguation).
Arab Republic of Egypt
جمهورية مصر العربية
Gumhūriyyat Miṣr al-ʿArabiyyah
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Bilady, Bilady, Bilady
Capital
(and largest city) Cairo
30°2′N 31°13′E / 30.033°N 31.217°E / 30.033; 31.217
Official languages Arabic1
Ethnic groups 99% Egyptians, 0.9% Nubians, 0.1% Greeks
Demonym Egyptian
Government Semi-presidential republic
- President Hosni Mubarak
- Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif
Establishment
- First Dynasty c.3150 BC
- Independence from United Kingdom 28 February 1922
- Republic declared 18 June 1953
- National Day 23 July (to celebrate 23 July 1952)
Area
- Total 1,002,450 km2 (30th)
387,048 sq mi
- Water (%) 0.632
Population
- March 2009 estimate 76 million[1] (16th)
- Density 76/km2 (120th)
196/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
- Total $442.640 billion[2]
- Per capita $5,898[2]
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
- Total $162.164 billion[2]
- Per capita $2,161[2]
Gini (1999–00) 34.5 (medium)
HDI (2008) ▼ 0.716 (116th)
Currency Egyptian pound (EGP)
Time zone EET (UTC+2)
- Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .eg
Calling code +20
1 Arabic (de jure), Egyptian Arabic (de facto)
Egypt (pronounced /ˈiːdʒɪpt/ ( listen); Arabic: مصر Miṣr, pronounced [misˤɾ] ( listen); Egyptian Arabic: Maṣr [ˈmɑsˤɾ]; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, kīmi; Egyptian: Kemet), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Western Asia. Covering an area of about 1,010,000 square kilometers (390,000 sq mi), Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.
Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its estimated 76 million[1] live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable agricultural land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with the majority spread across the densely-populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
Egypt is famous for its ancient civilization and some of the world's most famous monuments, including the Giza pyramid complex and its Great Sphinx. The southern city of Luxor contains numerous ancient artifacts, such as the Karnak Temple and the Valley of the Kings. Egypt is widely regarded as an important political and cultural nation of the Middle East.
Egypt possesses one of the most developed economies in the Middle East, with sectors such as tourism, agriculture, industry and service at almost equal rates in national production.[citation needed] Consequently, the Egyptian economy is rapidly developing, due in part to legislation aimed at luring investments, coupled with both internal and political stability, along with recent trade and market liberalization.
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Geography
2.1 Climate
3 History
3.1 Ancient Egypt
3.2 Modern History
3.3 The Revolution
4 Identity
5 Politics
5.1 National
5.2 Human rights
5.3 Foreign relations
6 Governorates and regions
7 Economy
8 Demographics
9 Media
10 Religion
11 Culture
11.1 Renaissance
11.2 Art and architecture
11.3 Literature
11.4 Music
11.5 Festivals
11.6 Sports
11.6.1 Best results
12 Military
13 See also
13.1 Lists
14 Notes and references
14.1 General references
15 External links
Etymology
km.t (Egypt)
in hieroglyphs
One of the ancient Egyptian names of the country, Kemet (km.t), is derived from the fertile black soils deposited by the Nile floods, distinct from the deshret, or (dšṛt), of the desert.[3] The name is realized as kīmi and kīmə in the Coptic stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as Χημία (Khēmía).[4] Another name was t3-mry "land of the riverbank".[5] The names of Upper and Lower Egypt were Ta-Sheme'aw (t3-šmˁw) "sedgeland" and Ta-Mehew (t3 mḥw) "northland", respectively.
Miṣr, the Arabic and modern official name of Egypt (Egyptian Arabic: Maṣr), is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם (Mitzráyim), literally meaning "the two straits" (a reference to the dynastic separation of upper and lower Egypt).[6] The word originally connoted "metropolis" or "civilization" and also means "country", or "frontier-land".
The English name "Egypt" came via the Latin word Aegyptus derived from the ancient Greek word Aígyptos (Αίγυπτος). The adjective aigýpti, aigýptios was borrowed into Coptic as gyptios, kyptios, and from there into Arabic as qubṭī, back formed into qubṭ, whence English Copt. The term is derived from Late Egyptian Hikuptah "Memphis", a corruption of the earlier Egyptian name Hat-ka-Ptah (ḥwt-k3-ptḥ), meaning "home of the ka (soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god Ptah at Memphis.[7] Strabo provided a folk etymology according to which Aígyptos (Αίγυπτος ) had evolved as a compound from Aigaiou huptiōs (Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως), meaning "below the Aegean".
Geography
Main article: Geography of Egypt
White Desert, FarafraAt 1,001,450 square kilometers (386,660 sq mi),[8] Egypt is the world's 38th-largest country. In terms of land area, it is approximately the same size as all of Central America,[9] twice the size of Spain,[10] four times the size of the United Kingdom,[11] and the combined size of the US states of Texas and California.[12]
Nevertheless, due to the aridity of Egypt's climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that approximately 99% of the population uses only about 5.5% of the total land area.[13]
The coastline of Alexandria, Egypt's second largest cityEgypt is bordered by Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a transcontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, which in turn is traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea.
The Nile River near AswanApart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt's landscape is a desert. The winds blowing can create sand dunes more than 100 feet (30 m) high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara Desert and of the Libyan Desert. These deserts were referred to as the "red land" in ancient Egypt, and they protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats.
Towns and cities include Alexandria, one of the greatest ancient cities, Aswan, Asyut, Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital, El-Mahalla El-Kubra, Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu, Hurghada, Luxor, Kom Ombo, Port Safaga, Port Said, Sharm el Sheikh, Suez, where the Suez Canal is located, Zagazig, and Al-Minya. Oases include Bahariya, el Dakhla, Farafra, el Kharga and Siwa. Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa. See Egyptian Protectorates for more information.
Satellite image of Egypt, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library
Climate
Egypt does not receive much rainfall except in the winter months.[14] South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410 mm (16 in),[15] with most of the rainfall between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai's mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as Damietta, Baltim, Sidi Barrany, etc. and rarely in Alexandria, frost is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt.
Temperatures average between 80 °F (27 °C) and 90 °F (32 °C) in summer, and up to 109 °F (43 °C) on the Red Sea coast. Temperatures average between 55 °F (13 °C) and 70 °F (21 °C) in winter. A steady wind from the northwest helps hold down the temperature near the Mediterranean coast. The Khamaseen is a wind that blows from the south in Egypt in spring, bringing sand and dust, and sometimes raises the temperature in the desert to more than 100 °F (38 °C).
Every year, a predictable flooding of the Nile replenishes Egypt's soil. This gives the country consistent harvest throughout the year. Many know this event as The Gift of the Nile.
The rise in sea levels due to global warming threatens Egypt's densely populated coastal strip and could have grave consequences for the country's economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians into environmental refugees by the end of the century, according to climate experts.[16]
History
Main articles: History of Egypt, Ancient Egypt, and Egyptians
Ancient Egypt
Giza PyramidsSee also Population history of Egypt
There is evidence of rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in the desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishers replaced a grain-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society.[17]
By about 6000 BC the Neolithic culture rooted in the Nile Valley.[18] During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Badarian culture and the successor Naqada series are generally regarded as precursors to Dynastic Egyptian civilization. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining somewhat culturally separate, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC.[19]
tAwy ('Two Lands')
in hieroglyphs
A unified kingdom was founded circa 3150 BC by King Menes, giving rise to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptians subsequently referred to their unified country as tawy, meaning "two lands", and later kemet (Coptic: kīmi), the "black land", a reference to the fertile black soil deposited by the Nile river. Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, c.2700−2200 BC., famous for its many pyramids, most notably the Third Dynasty pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza Pyramids.
The Great Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza, built during the Old Kingdom, are modern national icons that are at the heart of Egypt's thriving tourism industry.The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years. Stronger Nile floods and stabilization of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom c. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic Hyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.
The Hanging Church of Cairo, first built in the third or fourth century AD, is one of the most famous Coptic Churches in Egypt.The New Kingdom (c.1550−1070 BC) began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Jebel Barkal in Nubia, and included parts of the Levant in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well-known Pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The first historically attested expression of monotheism came during this period in the form of Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded by Libyans, Nubians and Assyrians, but native Egyptians drove them out and regained control of their country.
The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Persians in 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle. Later, Egypt fell to the Greco–Macedonians and Romans, beginning over two thousand years of foreign rule. The last ruler from the Ptolemaic line was Cleopatra VII, who committed suicide with her lover Marc Antony, after Caesar Augustus had captured them.
Before Egypt became part of the Byzantine realm, Christianity had been brought by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the AD first century. Diocletian's reign marked the transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established.[20]
The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Persian invasion early in the seventh century, until in AD 639, Egypt was Adopted to Islamic Empire by the Muslim Arabs. when they Defeated The Byzantine Armies in Egypt by Help of Some Revolutionary Egyptians, the form of Islam the Arabs brought to Egypt was Sunni. Early in this period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices that had survived through Coptic Christianity that was Expanded in Egypt by the Byzantines, giving rise to various Sufi orders that have flourished to this day.[21] Muslim rulers nominated by the Islamic Caliphate remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, including The late 3 Centuries of them Egypt was Maintained Their Own Empire, Away of The Abbasi Caliphate for which Cairo was the seat of the Caliphate under the Fatimids. With the end of the Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, took control about AD 1250. They continued to govern the country until the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517, after which it became a province of the Ottoman Empire. The mid-14th-Century Black Death killed about 40% of the country's population.[22]
Modern History
Coat of arms of the House of Mohamed AliThe brief French invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte began in 1798. The expulsion of the French in 1801 by Ottoman, Mamluk, and British forces was followed by four years of anarchy in which Ottomans, Mamluks, and Albanians who were nominally in the service of the Ottomans, wrestled for power. Out of this chaos, the commander of the Albanian regiment, Muhammad Ali (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) emerged as a dominant figure and in 1805 was acknowledged by the Sultan in Istanbul as his (viceroy) in Egypt; the title implied subordination to the Sultan but this was in fact a polite fiction: Ottoman power in Egypt was finished and Muhammad Ali, an ambitious and able leader, established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt (at first really and later as British puppets) until the revolution of 1952. His primary focus was military: he annexed Northern Sudan (1820-1824), Syria (1833), and parts of Arabia and Anatolia; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple Byzantium itself, checked him: he had to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans, but he kept the Sudan and his title to Egypt was made hereditary. A more lasting consequence of his military ambition is that it made him the moderniser of Egypt. Anxious to learn the military (and therefore industrial) techniques of the great powers he sent students to the West and invited training missions to Egypt. He built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil service. For better or worse, the introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton, the Egyptian variety of which became famous, transformed Egyptian agriculture into a cash-crop monoculture before the end of the century. The social effects of this were enormous: it led to the concentration of agriculture in the hands of large landowners, and, with the additional trigger of high cotton prices caused by the United States' civil war production drop, to a large influx of foreigners who began in earnest the exploitation of Egypt for international commodity production.[23]
Female nationalists demonstrating in Cairo, 1919.Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son Ibrahim (in September 1848), then by a grandson Abbas I (in November 1848), then by Said (in 1854), and Isma'il (in 1863). Abbas I was cautious. Said and Ismail were ambitious developers; unfortunately they spent beyond their means. The Suez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. The expense of this and other projects had two effects: it led to enormous debt to European banks, and caused popular discontent because of the onerous taxation it necessitated. In 1875 Ismail was forced to sell Egypt's share in the canal to the British government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French controllers who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, "with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the government."[24] Local dissatisfaction with Ismail and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with Ahmad Urabi a prominent figure. In 1882 he became head of a nationalist-dominated ministry committed to democratic reforms including parliamentary control of the budget. Fearing a diminishment of their control, Britain and France intervened militarily, bombarding Alexandria and crushing the Egyptian army at the battle of Tel el-Kebir.[25] They reinstalled Ismail's son Tewfik as figurehead of a de facto British protectorate.[26] In 1914 the Protectorate was made official, and the title of the head of state, which had changed from pasha to khedive in 1867, was changed to sultan, to repudiate the vestigial suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan, who was backing the Central powers in World War I. Abbas II was deposed as khedive and replaced by his uncle, Husayn Kamil, as sultan.[27]
In 1906, the Dinshaway Incident prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement. After the First World War, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement, gaining a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution. Constant revolting by the Egyptian people throughout the country led Great Britain to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on 22 February 1922.[28] The Kingdom of Egypt lasted from 1922 to its dissolution in 1953.
The Revolution
Main article: Egyptian Revolution of 1952
The new Egyptian government drafted and implemented a new constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary representative system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly-elected as Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924. In 1936 the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded. Continued instability in the government due to remaining British control and increasing political involvement by the king led to the ousting of the monarchy and the dissolution of the parliament in a military coup d'état known as the 1952 Revolution. The officers, known as the Free Officers Movement, forced King Farouk to abdicate in support of his son Fuad.
On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser – the real architect of the 1952 movement – and was later put under house arrest. Nasser assumed power as President and declared the full independence of Egypt from the United Kingdom on 18 June 1956. His nationalization of the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956 prompted the 1956 Suez Crisis.
View of Cairo, the largest city in Africa and the Middle East. The Cairo Opera House (bottom-right) is the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.Three years after the 1967 Six Day War, during which Israel had invaded and occupied Sinai, Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the Infitah economic reform policy, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike.
In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the October War, a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. It was an attempt to liberate the territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. Both the US and the USSR intervened and a cease-fire was reached. Despite not being a complete military success, most historians agree that the October War presented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to regain the Sinai in return for peace with Israel.
Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 peace treaty in exchange for the complete Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by the vast majority of Egyptians.[29] A fundamentalist military soldier assassinated Sadat in Cairo in 1981. He was succeeded by the incumbent Hosni Mubarak. In 2003, the Egyptian Movement for Change, popularly known as Kefaya, was launched to seek a return to democracy and greater civil liberties.
Identity
Main article: Egyptian Identity
Mahmoud Mokhtar's Egypt's Renaissance 1919-1928, Cairo University.The Nile Valley was home to one of the oldest cultures in the world, spanning three thousand years of continuous history. When Egypt fell under a series of foreign occupations after 343 BC, each left an indelible mark on the country's cultural landscape. Egyptian identity evolved in the span of this long period of occupation to accommodate, in principle, two new religions, Islam and Christianity; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, Egyptian Arabic.[30] The degree to which Egyptians identify with each layer of Egypt's history in articulating a sense of collective identity can vary. Questions of identity came to fore in the last century as Egypt sought to free itself from foreign occupation for the first time in two thousand years. Three chief ideologies came to head: ethno-territorial Egyptian nationalism, secular Arab nationalism and pan-Arabism, and Islamism. Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the nineteenth century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century.[31] Arab nationalism reached a peak under Nasser but was once again relegated under Sadat; meanwhile, the ideology espoused by Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood is present in small segments of the lower-middle strata of Egyptian society.[32]
Politics
National
Egypt has been a republic since 18 June 1953. President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak has been the President of the Republic since 14 October 1981, following the assassination of former-President Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office (28 years). He is the leader of the ruling National Democratic Party. Prime Minister Dr. Ahmed Nazif was sworn in as Prime Minister on 9 July 2004, following the resignation of Dr. Atef Ebeid from his office.
Although power is ostensibly organized under a multi-party semi-presidential system, whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the President and the Prime Minister, in practice it rests almost solely with the President who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. Egypt also holds regular multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election, in which Mubarak won a fifth consecutive term, was held in September 2005.
In late February 2005, President Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the 1952 movement, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy."[33] However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as Ayman Nour from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory.[34] Concerns were once again expressed after the 2005 presidential elections about government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging, in addition to police brutality and violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators.[35] After the election, Egypt imprisoned Nour, and the U.S. Government stated the "conviction of Mr. Nour, the runner-up in Egypt's 2005 presidential elections, calls into question Egypt's commitment to democracy, freedom, and the rule of law."[36]
As a result, most Egyptians are skeptical about the process of democratization and the role of the elections. Less than 25 percent of the country's 32 million registered voters (out of a population of more than 72 million) turned out for the 2005 elections.[37] A proposed change to the constitution would limit the president to two seven-year terms in office.[38]
Thirty-four constitutional changes voted on by parliament on 19 March 2007 prohibit parties from using religion as a basis for political activity; allow the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law to replace the emergency legislation in place since 1981, giving police wide powers of arrest and surveillance; give the president power to dissolve parliament; and end judicial monitoring of election.[39] As opposition members of parliament withdrew from voting on the proposed changes, it was expected that the referendum would be boycotted by a great number of Egyptians in protest of what has been considered a breach of democratic practices. Eventually it was reported that only 27% of the registered voters went to the polling stations under heavy police presence and tight political control of the ruling National Democratic Party. It was officially announced on 27 March 2007 that 75.9% of those who participated in the referendum approved of the constitutional amendments introduced by President Mubarak and was endorsed by opposition free parliament, thus allowing the introduction of laws that curb the activity of certain opposition elements, particularly Islamists.
The CIA World Factbook states that the legal system is based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); and that the judicial review takes place by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction only with reservations.
Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Egypt
Members of the Kefaya democracy movement protesting a fifth term for President Hosni Mubarak. See also video.Several local and international human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, have for many years criticized Egypt's human rights record as poor. In 2005, President Hosni Mubarak faced unprecedented public criticism when he clamped down on democracy activists challenging his rule. Some of the most serious human rights violations, according to HRW's 2006 report on Egypt, are routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.[40]
Discriminatory personal status laws governing marriage, custody and inheritance which put women at a disadvantage have also been cited. Laws concerning Coptic Christians which place restrictions on church building and open worship have been recently eased, but major construction still requires governmental approval, while sporadic attacks on Christians and churches continue.[41] Intolerance of Bahá'ís and unorthodox Muslim sects, such as Sufis and Shi'a, also remains a problem.[40] The Egyptian legal system only recognizes three religions: Islam, Christianity and Judaism. When the government moved to computerize identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Bahá'ís, could not obtain identification documents.[42] An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths can obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognized.[43] (For more on the status of religious minorities, see the Religion section.)
In 2005, the Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt as "6" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating), civil liberties as "5" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free."[44] It however noted that "Egypt witnessed its most transparent and competitive presidential and legislative elections in more than half a century and an increasingly unbridled public debate on the country's political future in 2005."[45] For freedom of the press, Egypt was deemed "Partly Free" in 2008, ranking 124 out of the 196 countries surveyed.[46]
In 2007, human rights group Amnesty International released a report criticizing Egypt for torture and illegal detention. The report alleges that Egypt has become an international center for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the War on Terror. The report calls on Egypt to bring its anti-terrorism laws into accordance with international human rights statutes and on other nations to stop sending their detainees to Egypt.[47] Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report, claiming that it was inaccurate and unfair, as well as causing deep offense to the Egyptian government.[48]
The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR) is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of human rights in Egypt.[49] In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights, headquartered in Cairo and headed by former UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali who directly reports to the president.[50] The council has come under heavy criticism by local NGO activists, who contend it undermines human rights work in Egypt by serving as a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its violations[51] and to provide legitimacy to repressive laws such as the recently renewed Emergency Law.[52] Egypt had announced in 2006 that it was in the process of abolishing the Emergency Law,[38] but in March 2007 President Mubarak approved several constitutional amendments to include "an anti-terrorism clause that appears to enshrine sweeping police powers of arrest and surveillance", suggesting that the Emergency Law is here to stay for the long haul.[53]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Egypt
Egypt's foreign policy operates along moderate lines. Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give Egypt extensive political influence in Africa and the Middle East. Cairo has been a crossroads of regional commerce and culture for centuries, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.
The permanent Headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairo and the Secretary General of the Arab League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amr Moussa is the current Secretary General. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978, as a protest to the signing by Egypt of a peace treaty with Israel, but returned in 1989.
Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, with the signing of the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty in 1979. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab states, and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute.
Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.
In the twenty-first century, Egypt has encountered a major problem with immigration, as millions of Africans attempt to enter Egypt fleeing poverty and war. Border control methods can be "harsh, sometimes lethal."[54]
Governorates and regions
Main articles: Governorates of Egypt and Markazes of Egypt
MatruhAlexandriaBeheiraKafr
el-SheikhDakahliaDamiettaGharbiaSharqiaMonufiaQalyubiaCairoGizaPort
SaidIsmailiaSuezNorth SinaiSouth SinaiFaiyumBeni SuefMinyaAsyutSohagQenaLuxor♦AswanRed
SeaNew ValleyEgypt is divided into 29 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions are then subdivided into towns and villages.
Each governorate has a capital, often carrying the same name as the governorate.
The tables (below) list the governorates in alphabetical order. In April 2008, Cairo and Giza have divided to 4 governorates, the new governorates are 6th of October and Helwan beside Cairo and Giza
Governorate Capital Location
Alexandria Alexandria Northern
Aswan Aswan Upper
Asyut Asyut Upper
Beheira Damanhur Lower
Beni Suef Beni Suef Upper
Cairo Cairo Middle
Dakahlia Mansura Lower
Damietta Damietta Lower
Faiyum Faiyum Upper
Gharbia Tanta Lower
Giza Giza Upper
Helwan Helwan Middle
Ismailia Ismailia Canal
Kafr el-Sheikh Kafr el-Sheikh Lower
Governorate Capital Location
Matruh Mersa Matruh Western
Minya Minya Upper
Monufia Shibin el-Kom Lower
New Valley Kharga Western
North Sinai Arish Sinai
Port Said Port Said Canal
Qalyubia Banha Lower
Qena Qena Upper
Red Sea Hurghada Eastern
Sharqia Zagazig Upper
Sohag Sohag Upper
South Sinai el-Tor Sinai
Suez Suez Canal
6th of October 6th of October Middle
Economy
Main article: Economy of Egypt
Cairo's city centre is a busy economic hubEgypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly-growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.[55]
The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investments in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has been receiving U.S. foreign aid (since 1979, an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Its main revenues however come from tourism as well as traffic that goes through the Suez Canal.
Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power. Substantial coal deposits are in the north-east Sinai, and are mined at the rate of about 600,000 tonnes (590,000 LT; 660,000 ST) per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at 1,940 cubic kilometres, and LNG is exported to many countries.
Economic conditions have started to improve considerably after a period of stagnation from the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the IMF has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.[citation needed] Some major economic reforms taken by the new government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by the year 2006.
Tourists ride in traditional Nile boat.FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) into Egypt has increased considerably in the past few years due to the recent economic liberalization measures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin, exceeding $6 billion in 2006.
Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the trickle down of the wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticize their government for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Often corruption is blamed by Egyptians as the main impediment to feeling the benefits of the newly attained wealth.[56][57][58] Major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure is promised by the government, with a large portion of the sum paid for the newly acquired 3rd mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat.[59]
The best known examples of Egyptian companies that have expanded regionally and globally are the Orascom Group and Raya. The IT sector has been expanding rapidly in the past few years, with many new start-ups conducting outsourcing business to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as numerous SME's. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya Contact Center, E Group Connections and C3 along with other start ups in that country. The sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs trying to capitalize on their country's huge potential in the sector, as well as constant government encouragement.
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Egypt and Egyptians
Egypt is the most populated country in the Middle East and the third most populous on the African continent, with an estimated 83 million people (as of April 2009). Egypt's population was estimated at 3 million when Napoleon invaded the country in 1798.[60] Almost all the population is concentrated along the banks of the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Approximately 90% of the population adheres to Islam and most of the remainder to Christianity, primarily the Coptic Orthodox denomination.[61] Apart from religious affiliation, Egyptians can be divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centers and the fellahin or farmers of rural villages. The last 40 years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances and massive increase in agricultural productivity,[62] made by the Green Revolution.[63]
Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in Egypt at 98% of the total population.[61] Ethnic minorities include the Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the Sinai Peninsula, the Berber-speaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, and the ancient Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal communities of Beja concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner of the country, and a number of Dom clans mostly in the Nile Delta and Faiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanization increases.
Egypt also hosts an unknown number of refugees and asylum seekers, but they are estimated to be between 500,000 and 3 million.[64] There are some 70,000 Palestinian refugees,[64] and about 150,000 recently arrived Iraqi refugees,[65] but the number of the largest group, the Sudanese, is contested.[66] The once-vibrant Greek and Jewish communities in Egypt have virtually disappeared, with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious occasions and for tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.
Media
Main article: Media of Egypt
Egyptian media are highly influential both in Egypt and the Arab World, attributed to large audiences and increasing freedom from government control.[67][68] Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this right.[67][69] After the Egyptian presidential election of 2005, Ahmed Selim, office director for Information Minister Anas al-Fiqi, declared an era of a "free, transparent and independent Egyptian media."[68]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Egypt
Cairo's unique cityscape with its ancient mosques. Since 640 AD, many mosques have been built throughout Egypt, thus Cairo has acquired the nickname of "city of a thousand minarets"Religion in Egypt controls many aspects of social life and is endorsed by law. Egypt is predominantly Muslim, with Muslims comprising between 80% and 90% of a population of around 80 million Egyptians[70][71][72][73][74][75][76] Almost the entirety of Egypt's Muslims are Sunni.[70] A significant number of Muslim Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders,[77] and there is a minority of Shi'a.
Most of the non-Muslims in Egypt are Christians. Christians represent around 10-20% of the population[70][72][73] and are the largest Christian community in the Middle East.[78][79][80][81][82][83][84] Over 90% of Egyptian Christians belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.[72][73][85] Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Evangelical Church of Egypt and various other Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria.
Millions of Egyptians follow the Christian faith as members of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.There is also a small, but nonetheless historically significant, non-immigrant Bahá'í population of around 2000,[86] and an even smaller community of Jews of about 200,[86][87] then a tiny number of Egyptians who identify as atheist and agnostic. The non-Sunni, non-Coptic communities range in size from several hundreds to a few thousand. The original Ancient Egyptian religion has all but disappeared.
According to the constitution of Egypt, any new legislation must at least implicitly agree with Islamic law; however, the constitution bans political parties with a religious agenda.[88]
Egypt hosts two major religious institutions. Al-Azhar University, founded in 970 A.D by the Fatimids as the first Islamic University in Egypt and the main Egyptian Church the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria established in the middle of the 1st century by Saint Mark.
In Egypt, Muslims and Christians live as neighbors, sharing a common history and national identity. They also share the same ethnicity, race, culture, and language.[86]
Al-Azhar Mosque founded in AD 970 by the Fatimids as the first Islamic University in EgyptReligion plays a central role in most Egyptians' lives, The Adhan (Islamic call to prayer) that is heard five times a day has the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to media and entertainment. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque minarets and is justifiably dubbed "the city of 1,000 minarets",[89] with a significant number of church towers. This religious landscape has been marred by a history of religious extremism,[42] recently witnessing a 2006 judgement of Egypt's Supreme Administrative Court, which made a clear legal distinction between "recognized religions" (i.e., Islam, Christianity, and Judaism) and all other religious beliefs. This ruling effectively delegitimizes and forbids practice of all but the three Abrahamic religions.[90] This judgment had made it necessary for non-Abrahamic religious communities to either commit perjury or be denied Egyptian identification cards (see Egyptian identification card controversy), until a 2008 Cairo court case ruled that unrecognized religious minorities may obtain birth certificates and identification documents, so long as they omit their religion on court documents.[43]
Religion in Egypt
religion percent
Islam 85%
Coptic Orthodox Christian 14%
Other Christian 1%
[91]
In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January the 7th) was recognized as an official holiday,[92] though Copts complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion.[40] The Coptic community, as well as several human rights activists and intellectuals, maintain that the number of Christians occupying government posts is not proportional to the number of Copts in Egypt.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Egypt
Bibliotheca Alexandrina is a commemoration of the ancient Library of Alexandria in Egypt's second largest city.Egyptian culture has six thousand years of recorded history. Ancient Egypt was among the earliest civilizations and for millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the Middle East and other African countries. After the Pharaonic era, Egypt itself came under the influence of Hellenism, Christianity, and Islamic culture. Today, many aspects of Egypt's ancient culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern Western culture, itself with roots in ancient Egypt.
Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. Egypt has the highest number of Nobel Laureates in Africa and the Arab World. Some Egyptian born politicians were or are currently at the helm of major international organizations like Boutros Boutros-Ghali of the United Nations and Mohamed ElBaradei of the IAEA.
Renaissance
The work of early nineteenth-century scholar Rifa'a et-Tahtawi gave rise to the Egyptian Renaissance, marking the transition from Medieval to Early Modern Egypt. His work renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied the history, language and antiquities of Egypt.[93] Egypt's renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like Muhammad Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to individual freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress.[94]
Art and architecture
Eighteenth dynasty painting from the tomb of Theban governor Ramose in Deir el-Madinah.The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art and architecture. The wall paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilization is renowned for its colossal pyramids, colonnades and monumental tombs. Well-known examples are the Pyramid of Djoser designed by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep, the Sphinx, and the temple of Abu Simbel. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to Mahmoud Mokhtar's famous sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic iconography of Isaac Fanous.
The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. Egypt's media and arts industry has flourished since the late nineteenth century, today with more than thirty satellite channels and over one hundred motion pictures produced each year. Cairo has long been known as the "Hollywood of the Middle East;" its annual film festival, the Cairo International Film Festival, has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers' Associations.[95] To bolster its media industry further, especially with the keen competition from the Persian Gulf Arab States and Lebanon, a large media city was built. Some Egyptian-born actors, like Omar Sharif, have achieved worldwide fame.
Literature
Literature constitutes an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East.[96] The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in the Egyptian vernacular.[97] Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre amongst Egyptians, represented by the works of Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-AbnudiIn their belief, boats were used by the dead to accompany the sun around the world, as Heaven was referred to as “Upper Waters”. In Egyptian mythology, every night the serpentine god Apophis would attack the Sun Boat as it brought the sun (and as such order )back to the Kingdom in the morning. It is referred to as the “Boat of Millions” as all of the gods and all of the souls of the blessed dead may at one point or another be needed to defend or operate it.
Music
Main article: Music of Egypt
Upper Egyptian folk musicians from Kom Ombo.Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. In antiquity, Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the ney and the oud. Percussion and vocal music also became an important part of the local music tradition ever since. Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmud Osman, who influenced the later work of Egyptian music giants such as Amr Diab,Mohamed Mounir, Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez. From the 1970s onwards, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk music continues to be played during weddings and other festivities.
Festivals
Egypt is famous for its many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by all Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. Ramadan has a special flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as fawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt during Ramadan to witness the spectacle. The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim (Coptic: Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙ shom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.
Egypt is one of the boldest countries in the middle east in the music industry. The next generation of the Egyptian music is considered to be the rise, as the music was disrupted by some foreign influences, bad admixing, and abused oriental styles. The new arising talents starting from the late 90's are taking over the rein now as they play many diffenet genres of many different cultures. Rock And Metal music are prevailing widely in Egypt now,as much as the oriental jazz and folk music are becoming well-known now to the Egyptian and non-Egyptian fans
Sports
Cairo International Stadium during the 2006 African Cup of NationsFootball is the Popular National Sport of Egypt. Egyptian Soccer clubs El Ahly, El Zamalek, Ismaily, El-Ittihad El-Iskandary and El Masry are the most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long-time regional champions. The great rivalries keep the streets of Egypt energized as people fill the streets when their favorite team wins. Egypt is rich in soccer history as soccer has been around for over 100 years. The country is home to many African championships such as the Africa Cup of Nations. While, Egypt's national team has not qualified for the FIFA World Cup since 1990, the Egyptian team won the Africa Cup Of Nations an unprecedented six times, including two times in a row in 1957 and 1959 and again in 2006 and 2008, setting a world record.
Squash and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been known for its fierce competition in international championships since the 1930s. Amr Shabana is Egypt's best player and the winner of the world open three times and the best player of 2006.
The Egyptian Handball team also holds another record; throughout the 34 times the African Handball Nations Championship was held, Egypt won first place five times (including 2008), five times second place, four times third place, and came in fourth place twice. The team won 6th and 7th places in 1995, 1997 at the World Men's Handball Championship, and twice won 6th place at the 1996 and 2000 Olympics.
In 2007, Omar Samra joined Ben Stephens (England), Victoria James (Wales) and Greg Maud (South Africa) in putting together an expedition to climb Mount Everest from its South side. The Everest expedition began on 25 March 2007 and lasted for just over 9 weeks. On the 17th of May at precisely 9:49 am Nepal time, Omar became the first and youngest Egyptian to climb 8,850m Mount Everest. He also became the first Egyptian to climb Everest from its South face, the same route taken by Sir Edmund Hilary and Sherpa Tenzing in 1953.
Egypt has a long history of participation at the Summer Olympics since 1912.
Best results
Games Gold Silver Bronze Total
1928 Amsterdam 2 1 1 4
1936 Berlin 2 1 2 5
1948 London 2 2 1 5
1952 Helsinki 0 0 1 1
1960 Rome 0 1 1 2
1984 Los Angeles 0 1 0 1
1988 Seoul 0 1 0 1
2004 Athens 1 1 3 5
2008 Beijing 0 0 1 1
Total 7 7 10 24
Military
Two Egyptian Mi-17 helicopters after unloading troops during an exercise.Main article: Military of Egypt
The Egyptian Armed forces have a combined troop strength of around 450,000 active personnel over the four main military branches: the Army, the Navy, the Air Force and the Air Defense Command.[98]
See also
Egypt portal
Africa portal
Main article: Outline of Egypt
List of ancient Egypt topics
List of basic geography topics
List of Egypt-related articles (alphabetical index)
List of Egypt-related topics (topical index)
List of international rankings
List of modern Egypt-related topics
Ancient Egypt
Canal of the pharaohs
Capital of Egypt
Communications in Egypt
Copt
Egyptian language
Egyptian mythology
Egyptian pyramids
Egyptians
Flag of Egypt
History of Egypt
History of Armenians in Egypt
History of Greeks in Egypt
History of Italians in Egypt
History of the Jews in Egypt
Holy Family in Egypt
Industry in Egypt
Languages of Egypt
Masri (Egyptian Arabic)
Public holidays in Egypt
Red Sea Riviera
Transport in Egypt
Lists
Main list: List of basic Egypt topics
List of writers from Egypt
List of Egyptian companies
List of Egypt-related topics
List of Egyptians
List of Egyptian products & manufacturers
List of Egyptian universities
List of Rulers and heads of state of Egypt
Vice President of Egypt
Notes and references
^ a b Central Agency for Population Mobilisation and Statistics - Population Clock (July 2008)
^ a b c d "Egypt". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=469&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=47&pr.y=3 . Retrieved on 2009-04-22.
^ Rosalie, David (1997). Pyramid Builders of Ancient Egypt: A Modern Investigation of Pharaoh's Workforce. Routledge. p. 18.
^ "A Brief History of Alchemy". UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL SCHOOL OF CHEMISTRY. http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/crabb/history.html . Retrieved on 2008-08-21.
^ Breasted, James Henry; Peter A. Piccione (2001). Ancient Records of Egypt. University of Illinois Press. pp. 76;40. ISBN 9780252069758. http://books.google.com/books?id=bT0q7nt1-gUC&client=firefox-a.
^ Biblical Hebrew E-Magazine. January, 2005
^ Hoffmeier, James K (October 1, 2007), "Rameses of the exodus narratives is the 13th B.C. Royal Ramessid Residence", Trinity Journal: 1, http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3803/is_200710/ai_n21137941/pg_2
^ World Factbook area rank order
^ More changes ahead for Egypt
^ E. A. Pearce, Charles Gordon Smith, The Times Books World Weather Guide, (Times Books/Random House: 1990), p.40
^ Sun, sand and searing heat
^ Robert Pateman, Salwa El-Hamamsy, Egypt, (Marshall Cavendish: 2003), p.7
^ Hamza, Waleed. Land use and Coastal Management in the Third Countries: Egypt as a case. Accessed= 2007-06-10.
^ Soliman, KH. Rainfall over Egypt. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 80, issue 343, pp. 104-104.
^ Marsa Matruh, Egypt. Weatherbase.com. Last accessed February 12, 2008.
^ Contingency planning for rising sea levels in Egypt | IRIN News, March 2008
^ Midant-Reynes, Béatrix. The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
^ "The Nile Valley 6000-4000 BC Neolithic". The British Museum. 2005. http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/africa/nile_valley/6000-4000BC . Retrieved on 2008-08-21.
^ Bard, Kathryn A. Ian Shaw, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 69.
^ Kamil, Jill. Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39
^ El-Daly, Okasha. Egyptology: The Missing Millennium. London: UCL Press, 2005. p. 140
^ Egypt - Major Cities, U.S. Library of Congress
^ Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, Nasser of the Arabs, published circa 1973, p 2.
^ Nejla M. Abu Izzeddin, Nasser of the Arabs", p 2.
^ Anglo French motivation: Derek Hopwood, Egypt: Politics and Society 1945-1981. London, 1982, George Allen & Unwin. p 11.
^ De facto protectorate: Joan Wucher King, Historical Dictionary of Egypt. Metuchen, New Jersey, USA; 1984; Scarecrow. p 17.
^ James Jankowski, Egypt, A Short History, p. 111
^ Jankowski, op cit., p. 112
^ Vatikiotis, p. 443
^ Raymon Kondos (February 15). "The Egyptian Identity: Pharaohs, Moslems, Arabs, Africans, Middle Easterners or Mediterranean People?". http://www.youregypt.com/issue3/topic.htm . Retrieved on 2008-08-21.
^ Jankowski, James. "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism" in Rashid Khalidi, ed. The Origins of Arab Nationalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990, pp. 244-45
^ Dawisha, Adeed. Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2003, pp. 264-65, 267
^ Business Today Egypt. Mubarak throws presidential race wide open. March 2005.
^ Lavin, Abigail. Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour and Egypt's problematic attempt at free elections. March 27, 2006.
^ Murphy, Dan. Egyptian vote marred by violence. Christian Science Monitor. 26 May 2005.
^ United States "Deeply Troubled" by Sentencing of Egypt's Nour. U.S. Department of State, Published 24 December 2005
^ Gomez, Edward M. Hosni Mubarak's pretend democratic election. San Francisco Chronicle. September 13, 2005.
^ a b Egypt to begin process of lifting emergency laws. December 5, 2006.
^ Anger over Egypt vote timetable BBC News.
^ a b c Human Rights Watch. Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt. 2005
^ Church Building Regulations Eased
^ a b U.S. Department of State (2004-09-15). "Egypt: International Religious Freedom Report". Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35496.htm . Retrieved on 2008-01-30.
^ a b Johnston, Cynthia (2008-01-29). "Egypt Baha'is win court fight over identity papers". Reuters. http://africa.reuters.com/wire/news/usnL29677385.html . Retrieved on 2008-01-30.
^ "Freedom in the World 2006" (PDF). Freedom House. 2005-12-16. http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/pdf/Charts2006.pdf . Retrieved on 2006-07-27.
See also Freedom in the World 2006, List of indices of freedom
^ Freedom House. Freedom in the World - Egypt. 2006
^ Freedom House. Freedom of the Press World Ranking. 2009
^ Egypt torture centre, report says. bbc.co.uk. Written 2007-4-11. Retrieved 2007-4-11.
^ Egypt rejects torture criticism. bbc.co.uk. Written 2007-4-13. Retrieved 2007-4-13.
^ Egyptian Organization for Human Rights
^ Official page of the Egyptian National Council for Human Rights.
^ Egyptian National Council for Human Rights Against Human Rights NGOs. EOHR. June 3, 2003.
^ Qenawy, Ahmed. The Egyptian Human Rights Council: The Apple Falls Close to the Tree. ANHRI. 2004
^ Egypt parliament approves changes in constitution. Reuters. March 20, 2007.
^ Desperate on the Border, ALASDAIR SOUSSI, Jerusalem Report, Nov. 9, 1953, [1]
^ "Egypt: Economy". LookLex Encyclopedia. http://lexicorient.com/e.o/egypt_2.htm . Retrieved on 2008-08-21.
^ IRIN Middle East | Middle East | Egypt: Corruption hampering development, says opposition report | Other | Breaking News
^ Daily News Egypt - Full Article
^ et - Full Story
^ Fatima El Saadani (August 2006). "Etisalat Wins Third License". Business Today. http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6902 . Retrieved on 2008-08-21.
^ Egypt - Population, U.S. Library of Congress
^ a b "Egyptian people section from the World Factbook". World Fact Book. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html
^ BBC NEWS | The limits of a Green Revolution?
^ Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy
^ a b Refugees in Egypt.
^ Iraq: from a Flood to a Trickle: Egypt
^ See The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants for a lower estimate. The "The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights". Archived from the original on 2007-12-30. http://web.archive.org/web/20071230012918/http://www.eohr.org/ref/. states on its web site that in 2000 the World Council of Churches claimed that "between two and five million Sudanese have come to Egypt in recent years". Most Sudanese refugees come to Egypt in the hope of resettling in Europe or the US.
^ a b Country profiles: Egypt BBC
^ a b "Plus ca Change: The Role of the Media in Egypt's First Contested Presidential Elections", TBS
^ Freedom House 2007 report
^ a b c "Egypt from "The World Factbook"". American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). September 4, 2008. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/eg.html.
^ ""Religion/Islamic conservatism's revival attracts followers, worries governments"". Star Tribune. June 18, 2009. http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=MN&p_theme=mn&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EFE4944AB794537&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM.
^ a b c "Egypt from "U.S. Department of State/Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs"". United States Department of State. September 30, 2008. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm.
^ a b c "Egypt from "Foreign and Commonwealth Office"". Foreign and Commonwealth Office -UK Ministry of Foreign Affairs. August 15, 2008. http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/middle-east-north-africa/egypt.
^ "Fact Sheet from "Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Network"". E